Technology Safety of Grain & Food Processing: Quality Control Lecture

MODULE I: TECHNOLOGY SAFETY OF GRAIN, FLOUR, CEREAL AND
COMPOUND FEED PRODUCTS
1- LECTURE
ENSURING THE QUALITY OF PROCESSING PRODUCTS AND THEIR
CONTROL
Goal: to provide students with knowledge about quality control methods in the food
industry and their role in product safety.
Objectives:
1.
To study modern quality control methods (inspection, sampling, testing, etc.).
2.
To explain the importance of standardization and documentation in ensuring
product safety.
3.
To analyze production stages and identify control points.
4.
To discuss compliance with regulatory requirements.
5.
To develop skills in evaluating and applying quality control methods.
Some of the common quality control methods are: inspection, sampling, testing,
verification, validation, and auditing. You should select the most appropriate and effective
quality control methods for your product and your process, and you should follow the quality
control plan and the quality control documentation.
Food manufacturing is an important industry that employs millions of people around the world.
The process of creating food products begins with harvesting crops, vegetables and fruits, which are
then processed into foods like bread, cereal, pasta, meat products and dairy goods.
Food manufacturing is crucial to the healthy functioning of our economy and relies on strict
quality control measures to ensure safety and consistency.
Factory-produced food is absolutely safe to eat. In fact, it's often more regulated and inspected
than food produced by small farmers. The reason for this is simple: factory food is industrialized and
standardized, which makes it easier to keep track of and eliminate any potential contamination. Every
step in the production process from growing to packaging is scrutinized meticulously to ensure quality
and safety.
In today’s guide, we’ll learn about quality control in food manufacturing and its related
concepts. Let’s take a look at the table of content below:

Quality Control in Food Manufacturing

Significance of Quality Control in Food Manufacturing

Goals of Quality Control in Food Manufacturing

Important Characteristics of Food Quality Control System

Quality Control and Compliance

Key Food Quality Control Procedures

When to Perform Food Quality Control?

Tools and Techniques for Quality Control in Food Manufacturing

Challenges in Quality Control in Food Manufacturing

Benefits of Quality Control in Food Manufacturing
Quality Control in Food Manufacturing
Quality control in food manufacturing is a process that ensures that food products meet specific
quality standards and regulatory requirements before they are released to the market.
It further involves monitoring and testing raw materials, production processes, and finished
products to ensure that they meet certain specifications and are safe for consumption.
Quality control in food manufacturing is crucial for maintaining product consistency, ensuring
food safety, and meeting consumer expectations.
Significance of Quality Control in Food Manufacturing
The significance of quality control in food manufacturing cannot be overstated. It plays a
crucial role in ensuring that food products are safe, of high quality, and meet regulatory requirements.
Some of the key reasons why quality control is significant in food manufacturing are:

Food safety: Quality control is essential for preventing foodborne illnesses and
ensuring that food products are safe for consumption. By identifying and controlling potential hazards
in the production process, quality control can help prevent contamination of food products.

Compliance with regulations: Quality control helps ensure that food products comply
with local and international regulations and standards. Failure to comply with these regulations can
result in fines, product recalls, and reputational damage.

Product consistency: Quality control is important for maintaining product consistency
and ensuring that customers receive the same quality product every time they purchase it. This helps
build brand loyalty and trust.

Cost savings: Quality control can help identify and eliminate non-conforming
products, which can result in cost savings for the company. It can also help identify areas for process
improvement, which can lead to increased efficiency and reduced waste.

Reputation: Quality control is essential for protecting the reputation of the company. A
single incident of contaminated or unsafe food can have a significant negative impact on the company's
reputation and bottom line.
Consequently, quality control in food manufacturing is crucial for protecting public health,
complying with regulations, maintaining product consistency, reducing costs, and protecting the
reputation of the company.
Goals of Quality Control in Food Manufacturing
The goals of quality control in food manufacturing are to ensure that food products meet certain
standards of quality, safety, and consistency.
The specific goals may vary depending on the type of food product and the regulatory
requirements in the region. However, some common goals of quality control in food manufacturing
include:

Ensuring that the food products meet regulatory requirements and comply with food
safety regulations.

Preventing contamination of food products by identifying and controlling potential
hazards in the production process.

Maintaining product consistency and quality by monitoring production processes, raw
materials, and finished products.

Improving efficiency and reducing waste by identifying and eliminating nonconforming products.

Enhancing customer satisfaction by providing safe and high-quality food products.

Protecting the reputation of the company by avoiding product recalls and negative
publicity.

Continuously improving the quality control process by implementing feedback and
making necessary improvements.
Important Characteristics of Food Quality Control System
Following, we’ve discussed important characteristics of food quality control system. Let’s
learn:
Proactive (Preventive) Quality Control
Proactive quality control, also known as preventive quality control, is a proactive approach to
quality control that focuses on preventing quality issues before they occur.
Furthermore, it is a systematic and continuous process of identifying potential quality problems,
analyzing their root causes, and taking preventive actions to eliminate them.
Proactive quality control is based on the principle that prevention is better than correction, and
that it is more efficient and cost-effective to prevent quality issues than to correct them after they have
occurred.
Some of the key elements of proactive quality control include:

Risk assessment: Identifying potential risks and hazards in the production process and
supply chain, and assessing their likelihood and severity.

Root cause analysis: Identifying the root causes of quality issues and taking corrective
and preventive actions to eliminate them.

Continuous improvement: Continuously reviewing and improving the quality control
process based on feedback and data analysis.

Training and education: Providing training and education to personnel on quality
control procedures, best practices, and regulatory requirements.

Standardization: Developing and implementing standardized procedures and
processes to ensure consistency and quality.

Collaboration: Encouraging collaboration and communication between different
departments and stakeholders to identify and prevent quality issues.
Food industry may prevent quality problems and guarantee the production of safe and highquality goods by practicing proactive quality control. The chance of product recalls, damage to their
reputation, and legal responsibility can be decreased by food industry by recognizing potential risks and
hazards and implementing preventive measures to eliminate them.
Reactive Quality Control
Reactive quality control, also known as corrective quality control, is a reactive approach to
quality control that focuses on correcting quality issues after they have occurred.
It further involves detecting and addressing quality issues through inspection, testing, and
analysis of non-conforming products, customer complaints, and other quality-related incidents.
Reactive quality control is often used as a backup to preventive quality control, as it is not
always possible to prevent all quality issues from occurring.
Some of the key elements of reactive quality control include:

Root cause analysis: Identifying the root causes of quality issues and taking corrective
and preventive actions to eliminate them.

Inspection and testing: Inspecting and testing non-conforming products and analyzing
the results to identify quality issues.

Documentation and tracking: Documenting quality issues, actions taken, and
outcomes, and tracking the effectiveness of corrective actions.

Communication and collaboration: Communicating quality issues and corrective
actions to relevant stakeholders, such as production personnel, suppliers, and customers, and
collaborating to address quality issues.

Continuous improvement: Continuously reviewing and improving the quality control
process based on feedback and data analysis.
While reactive quality control can help food industries address quality issues and prevent them
from recurring, it is generally less effective and more costly than proactive quality control.
This is because reactive quality control involves the cost of analyzing non-conforming
products, taking corrective actions, and potentially recalling or disposing of non-conforming products.
As such, food industries should aim to prioritize preventive quality control and minimize the
need for reactive quality control.
Quality Control Culture
Quality control culture refers to the values, attitudes, and behaviors that prioritize and support
quality control in a food manufacturing organization. A strong quality control culture involves a shared
commitment to producing safe and high-quality products, and a willingness to invest time, resources,
and effort into maintaining and improving quality control processes.
Some of the key characteristics of a quality control culture include:

Leadership commitment: Top management demonstrates a commitment to quality
control by providing the necessary resources, setting quality goals, and actively participating in quality
control activities.

Employee engagement: All employees are involved in quality control activities and
encouraged to contribute to continuous improvement efforts.

Accountability: All employees are held accountable for maintaining and improving
quality control processes and are empowered to take action to prevent quality issues.

Continuous improvement: The organization continuously seeks to improve quality
control processes and encourages innovation and experimentation.

Communication and collaboration: The organization fosters open communication
and collaboration between different departments and stakeholders to identify and address quality issues.

Training and education: The organization provides training and education to
employees on quality control procedures, best practices, and regulatory requirements.

Data-driven decision-making: The organization collects and analyzes data on quality
control processes and uses this information to make informed decisions and drive continuous
improvement.
A strong quality control culture is essential for food manufacturing organizations to produce
safe and high-quality products, maintain customer satisfaction, and comply with regulatory
requirements.
Organizations can ensure that all staff members are dedicated to upholding and enhancing
quality control procedures by establishing a culture of quality control. This will also help to ensure that
quality control becomes an intrinsic part of the organization's entire strategy and operations.
Quality Control and Compliance
Quality control and compliance are essential aspects of food manufacturing, as they ensure that
food products are safe, of high quality, and meet regulatory requirements.
Furthermore, quality control focuses on monitoring and improving the quality of products and
processes, while compliance involves meeting legal and regulatory requirements.
Some of the key regulations and standards that food industries need to comply with include:

Food safety regulations: Food industries need to comply with food safety regulations
such as the Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA) in the United States, the European Union's
General Food Law, and the Codex Alimentarius food safety standards.

Quality management standards: Quality management standards such as ISO 9001
provide a framework for implementing and maintaining quality control processes.

Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs): GMPs provide guidelines for ensuring that
food products are manufactured, processed, and packaged under sanitary conditions and meet quality
standards.

Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP): HACCP is a systematic
approach to identifying and controlling potential hazards in the food production process.
For the food industry to guarantee the safety and quality of their products, uphold consumer
confidence, and stay out of legal and regulatory trouble, effective quality control and compliance are
essential.
Food industries may make sure that their goods are safe, of high quality, and satisfy customer
and regulatory needs by putting in place effective quality control methods and adhering to rules and
standards.
Key Food Quality Control Procedures
Even if they don't cover all that has to be monitored, the following are some of the most
important quality control techniques that every facility that produces food should have:
Ingredient Specifications:
Ingredient specifications are written documents that provide detailed information about the
ingredients used in food products. These specifications include information such as the name of the
ingredient, its source, quality standards, physical and chemical properties, and any restrictions or
limitations on its use.
Ultimately, ingredient specifications are essential to ensure that only high-quality ingredients
are used in food products and that they are used in the correct amounts.
Approved Supplier List:
An approved supplier list is a list of suppliers who have been approved to provide ingredients
or other materials to a food manufacturing company. Suppliers are typically approved based on their
ability to meet quality standards and regulatory requirements. Maintaining an approved supplier list is
critical to ensure that only high-quality materials are used in food products.
Product Formulation/Recipe:
A product formulation or recipe is a detailed document that outlines the ingredients, quantities,
and processing steps needed to manufacture a specific food product. The formulation or recipe is
typically developed by food technologists or product development teams and is critical to ensure
consistency in product quality and to prevent errors in ingredient selection and processing.
Manufacturing Procedures:
Manufacturing procedures are written documents that provide detailed instructions for how to
manufacture a specific food product. These procedures include information such as the sequence of
processing steps, equipment specifications, and quality control checks. Manufacturing procedures are
critical to ensure that products are manufactured consistently and to a high standard of quality.
In-Process Records:
In-process records are documents that record information about the processing of a food
product during production. These records include information such as processing times, temperatures,
and other key process parameters.
Furthermore, in-process records are critical to ensure that products are manufactured to the
desired specifications and to identify and correct any quality issues that arise during production.
Packaging and Labeling:
Packaging and labeling are critical aspects of food quality control as they provide important
information to customers, including ingredients, nutritional information, and handling and storage
instructions. Packaging and labeling must meet regulatory requirements and be consistent with the
product formulation and manufacturing procedures.
Environmental Monitoring:
Environmental monitoring involves testing the production environment for potential sources of
contamination, such as microorganisms, allergens, and foreign materials. Environmental monitoring is
critical to prevent contamination of food products and to identify and correct any potential sources of
contamination.
Implementing these key food quality control procedures is critical to ensure that food products
are safe, of high quality, and meet customer and regulatory requirements.
By implementing effective quality control procedures, food industries can prevent quality
issues, minimize the risk of product recalls, and maintain customer trust and satisfaction.
When to Perform Food Quality Control?
Food quality control should be done throughout the entire production process, from receiving
raw materials to shipping finished products. This includes:

Receiving: Raw materials should be inspected upon arrival to ensure that they meet the
required specifications and are free from contamination.

Storage: Raw materials and finished products should be stored under appropriate
conditions to maintain their quality and prevent contamination.

Preparation: Food products should be prepared according to the approved
formulations and manufacturing procedures.

Processing: During processing, in-process controls should be in place to monitor
critical process parameters and ensure that the products meet the required specifications.

Packaging: Finished products should be packaged in appropriate packaging materials
to maintain their quality and prevent contamination.

Labeling: The labeling of the finished product should be reviewed to ensure that it
contains accurate and appropriate information.

Shipping: Finished products should be shipped under appropriate conditions to
maintain their quality and prevent contamination.
In summary, quality control should be a continuous process throughout the entire production
cycle to ensure that the products meet the desired specifications and are safe for consumption.
Tools and Techniques for Quality Control in Food Manufacturing
Following, we’ve discussed some crucial tools and techniques for quality control in food
manufacturing. Let’s discuss:
Inspection and Testing:
Inspection and testing are essential tools for quality control in food manufacturing. Inspection
involves the examination of the food product, raw materials, packaging, equipment, and the entire
manufacturing process to ensure that they meet the required standards.
Testing involves the use of scientific methods to analyze food samples for various parameters
such as nutritional content, microbiological safety, and sensory quality.
The inspection and testing process should be comprehensive and cover all stages of food
production, from the receiving of raw materials to the packaging and shipping of the finished products.
Food manufacturers should have a well-defined testing program that includes the selection of
appropriate testing methods, sampling procedures, and acceptance criteria.
Sampling Plans:
Sampling plans are used to determine the number of samples that should be taken from a batch
or lot of food products for testing purposes. A well-designed sampling plan ensures that representative
samples are taken and tested, and that the results are reliable and accurate.
There are several samplings plans that food manufacturers can use, including random sampling,
systematic sampling, and stratified sampling. The choice of sampling plan will depend on the
characteristics of the food product, the testing requirements, and the level of confidence required in the
results.
Quality Assurance Programs:
Quality assurance programs are systems that ensure that the food products meet the required
standards and specifications. The program should cover all aspects of food production, from the
selection of raw materials to the shipping of the finished product.
A comprehensive quality assurance program includes policies, procedures, and guidelines that
guide all aspects of food production. It also includes training programs for employees, documentation
requirements, and regular audits and inspections to ensure compliance with the program.
Quality Control Software:
Quality control software is a computer program that helps food manufacturers manage their
quality control processes. The software can automate the sampling process, track test results, and
provide real-time monitoring of the manufacturing process.
Quality control software can also generate reports, trend analysis, and alerts for nonconformances, enabling manufacturers to take corrective actions promptly. The software can also
integrate with other systems, such as inventory management and logistics, to provide a comprehensive
view of the manufacturing process.
In conclusion, important tools for quality control in food processing include inspection and
testing, sampling strategies, quality assurance plans, and quality control software. A thorough quality
control system should be put in place by food producers to guarantee that their goods fulfil the
necessary requirements for standards and specifications as well as legal requirements for food safety.
Challenges in Quality Control in Food Manufacturing
Following, we’ve discussed challenges that emerges when it comes to quality control in food
manufacturing. Let’s discuss:
Food Safety Regulations and Compliance:
One of the major challenges in quality control in food manufacturing is ensuring compliance
with food safety regulations. Regulations vary by country and can be complex, making it difficult for
manufacturers to keep up with the latest requirements. Failure to comply with regulations can result in
fines, recalls, and damage to the company's reputation.
Food manufacturers need to stay up to date with regulatory changes and have systems in place
to ensure compliance. This may involve investing in specialized software, hiring regulatory experts,
and implementing regular audits and inspections.
Supply Chain Management:
Supply chain management is another challenge in quality control in food manufacturing.
Manufacturers need to ensure that their suppliers meet their standards for quality, safety,
and sustainability. This involves conducting regular audits of suppliers and monitoring their
performance to ensure they meet requirements.
Manufacturers also need to ensure that their products are transported and stored under the
appropriate conditions to maintain quality and safety. This can be challenging, especially when dealing
with complex supply chains involving multiple countries and suppliers.
Automation and Technology:
Automation and technology offer opportunities for improving quality control in food
manufacturing, but they also present challenges. Implementing new technologies can be costly, and
staff may require additional training to use them effectively.
There is also a risk of overreliance on technology, leading to a decrease in human oversight and
attention to detail. Manufacturers need to ensure that technology is used appropriately and that it
enhances, rather than replaces, human decision-making and problem-solving.
Staff Training and Development:
The success of quality control in food manufacturing depends on the knowledge and skills of
staff. However, turnover can be high in the food industry, and training new staff can be timeconsuming and costly.
Manufacturers need to invest in ongoing training and development programs for staff to ensure
that they have the knowledge and skills to maintain quality control standards. This may involve
providing training on new technologies, regulatory compliance, and best practices for quality control.
Consequently, quality control in food manufacturing is critical for ensuring food safety,
maintaining quality, and complying with regulations. However, it is not without its challenges. Food
manufacturers need to stay up to date with regulatory changes, manage their supply chains effectively,
implement technology appropriately, and invest in staff training and development to overcome these
challenges and ensure the success of their quality control programs.
Benefits of Quality Control in Food Manufacturing
Following, we’ve discussed crucial benefits of quality control in food manufacturing. Let’s
discuss:
Improved Product Quality:
Quality control is essential for improving the quality of food products. By monitoring and
controlling the production process, manufacturers can ensure that products meet the required standards
for safety, nutritional value, and sensory quality.
This leads to products that are consistently high in quality and meet customer expectations,
resulting in increased customer satisfaction and loyalty.
Increased Efficiency and Productivity:
Quality control can also lead to increased efficiency and productivity in food manufacturing.
By identifying and addressing quality issues early in the production process, manufacturers can reduce
the amount of time and resources required to correct problems.
This further results in a more streamlined production process and can lead to increased
productivity, reducing production costs and increasing profitability.
Enhanced Brand Reputation:
Quality control can enhance a food manufacturer's brand reputation by ensuring that products
meet the highest standards for quality and safety.
This can lead to increased consumer trust and loyalty, as well as positive word-of-mouth
recommendations. A strong brand reputation can also help food manufacturers differentiate themselves
from competitors and increase market share.
Reduced Costs and Waste:
Quality control can help food manufacturers reduce costs and waste by identifying and
addressing quality issues early in the production process. By reducing the amount of rework and scrap,
manufacturers can reduce production costs and increase profitability.
Additionally, by ensuring that products meet quality standards, manufacturers can reduce the
risk of recalls and associated costs, such as fines and legal fees.
To sum up, quality control is essential to the achievement of food manufacturing activities.
Food producers may produce high-quality products that satisfy consumer expectations and generate
profits for the company through enhancing brand reputation, enhancing productivity and efficiency,
decreasing costs, and minimizing waste.
Control questions:
 What is quality control in food manufacturing?
 Which quality control methods are most common?
 Why are factory-produced foods considered safer than farm-produced ones?
 What role does documentation play in the quality control system?
 Why is it necessary to check each stage of production?
2- LECTURE
FOOD SAFETY ISSUES
Goal: to give students a general understanding of the history, current state, and prospects
of the food industry in Kazakhstan.
Objectives:
To study the historical development of the food industry in Kazakhstan.
To examine the classification of confectionery products.
To identify the main raw materials used in sugar production.
To analyze the key challenges and tasks facing the confectionery industry.
To consider modern technologies and innovations in the sugar industry.
TOP 10 FOOD SAFETY ISSUES
1. Improper Hand Washing Wet hands with warm water, apply soap, and rub hands
together for a minimum of 20 seconds. Good hand hygiene is the first line of defense in
preventing foodborne illness.
2. Improper Sanitation Keep foodservice equipment and surfaces clean using proper
washing and sanitizing procedures.
3. Same Cutting Board Use separate chopping boards and utensils for raw and
cooked/ready-to-eat foods.
4. Improper Cooking Temperature Ensure cooked items reach proper temperatures.
Ground and Whole Poultry: 165˚F
Whole Cut Beef, Pork, Lamb: 145˚F
Ground Meat: 155˚F
Vegetables, Rice, etc: 135˚F
Seafood: 145˚F
5. Confusing Labeling Any food item not stored in its original packaging must be
labeled to avoid confusion. Cooked products should be labeled with a “Use by” date.
6. Washing Meat & Poultry Bacteria in raw meat and poultry can spread to sink and
countertops causing cross-contamination. Instead, handle raw products properly and cook to
correct internal temperature.
7. Untrained Employees Each kitchen staff member should be regularly given training
and reminders on proper cleaning and sanitizing protocols.
8. Unsafe Food Holding Keep hot food hot, and cold food cold. Bacteria that cause food
poisoning multiply quickest in the “Danger Zone” – between 40˚F and 140˚F.
9. Sick Employees Preparing Food Food workers should stay home when sick and for
at least 24-48 hours after symptoms stop. Symptoms include but are not limited to: diarrhea,
fever, and sore throat.
10. Unsafe Food Storage Raw foods, such as meat, should never be stored above readyto-eat foods like fresh fruit, salads, or desserts. The raw food may splash or drip onto the readyto-eat food and result in cross-contamination.
3 – LECTURE
CLASSIFICATION OF HARMFUL AND FOREIGN SUBSTANCES AND THE
MAIN WAYS OF THEIR ENTRY INTO FOOD PRODUCTS
"NATURAL COMPONENTS OF FOOD THAT HAVE A NEGATIVE EFFECT
ON THE HUMAN ORGANISM"
What is food contamination?
Food contamination refers to when something gets into food that shouldn't be there,
thereby making the food unsafe to eat. Food-borne illness and its business-destroying cousin, the
food-borne illness outbreak, are caused by food contamination.
While there are many food safety hazards that can cause food contamination, most fall
into one of three categories: biological, physical or chemical contamination. In many cases, a
single hazard can introduce more than one type of contamination to food
Types of food contamination
BIOLOGICAL CONTAMINATION
Biological contamination occurs when food becomes contaminated by living organisms
or the substances they produce. This includes biological matter produced by humans, rodents,
insects and microorganisms. Biological contamination is the leading cause of food-borne illness
and food poisoning*, and a common cause of food spoilage and food waste. There are six types
of microorganisms that can cause food-borne illness: bacteria, viruses, parasites, protozoa, fungi
and prions
Most food-borne illnesses in Canada are caused by bacteria or viruses, with the most
common being:
Norovirus, Listeria, Salmonella, E. Coli, Campylobacter
Food-borne illness occurs when disease-causing microorganisms, also called pathogens,
get into food and multiply to unsafe levels before being eaten. This can happen remarkably
quickly; in conditions ideal for bacterial growth, one single-cell bacteria can become two million
in just seven hours
Bacteria and other pathogens thrive in foods that are: Moist, High in protein or starch,
Neutral in acidity.
Foods that meet these criteria are called potentially hazardous or high-risk foods. All
high-risk foods are teeming with pathogens and other bacteria; it is your responsibility to stop
bacteria from multiplying to unsafe levels and, where possible, to destroy them via the cooking
process
To slow down the growth of bacteria and prevent food safety risks, you need to follow
food safety best practices designed to control bacterial growth through proper food handling
techniques, rigorous cleaning and sanitizing procedures and time and temperature control of
food.
Food poisoning occurs when specific toxins are consumed, such as those produced by
Salmonella, Staphylococcus or Listeria. Microbial toxins are extremely potent toxins that can
disable the immune system and damage tissues if they are consumed. Many microbial toxins are
heat-resistant, so even if bacteria are destroyed in the cooking process, the toxins remain in the
food and can cause violent, almost-instantaneous symptoms
To minimize the risk of biological food contamination occurring in your food business,
always:
Keep high-risk foods (e.g. meat, poultry, dairy, eggs) out of the Temperature Danger
Zone**
Purchase, store, thaw, prepare, cook and serve high-risk foods properly
Regularly clean and sanitize all food contact surfaces and equipment
Maintain good overall hygiene and sanitation of the premises
Maintain high standards of personal hygiene (and ensure all employees do the same)
*The terms “food-borne illness” and “food poisoning” differ slightly in meaning but are
often used interchangeably to describe any food-related illness caused by microorganisms or
their
Byproducts.
**In Manitoba, the Temperature Danger Zone is 5°C – 60°C (41°F – 140°F). In all other
provinces and territories in Canada, it is 4°C – 60°C (40°F – 140°F)
PHYSICAL CONTAMINATION
Physical contamination occurs when a physical object enters food at some stage of the
production or preparation process. Physical objects in food can be a choking hazard and often
introduce biological contaminants as well. Even if the object is not likely to injure your
customer, finding an object in their food can be very distressing for a customer (who knows that
harmful microorganisms on the object could make them ill).
Common examples of physical contaminants in food businesses include: Hair,
Fingernails, Bandages, Jewellery, Broken glass, staples, Plastic wrap/packaging, Dirt from
unwashed fruit and vegetables, Pests, pest droppings, rodent hair.
To minimize the risk of physical food contamination occurring in your food business, always:
Wear hair neatly tied back or wear a hair/beard net
Keep jewellery to a minimum
When necessary, wear brightly coloured bandages that can be easily seen if they fall off
Throw out and replace cracked, chipped or broken dishware, glassware and equipment
Use a plastic or metal scoop for ice (never use the glass!)
Wash fruits and vegetables thoroughly
Establish pest prevention and control procedures as part of your Food Safety Pl.
CHEMICAL CONTAMINATION
Chemical contamination occurs when food produces or comes into contact with toxic
chemicals, which can lead to chemical food poisoning. Chemical contaminants fall into one of
two categories: natural and artificial
Common chemical contaminants include:
Cleaning products (e.g. detergent, sanitizer)
Pesticides/herbicides
Toxic chemicals in metals and plastic
Preservatives
Naturally-occurring toxins.
Naturally-occurring toxins are toxic compounds that are produced by living organisms,
some of which are staples of the human diet (e.g. shellfish, potatoes, fish). These toxins are not
harmful to the organisms themselves but can be harmful to us if we eat them
Minimal contamination with natural toxins might not lead to illness, but Food Handlers
should be aware of which foods produce toxins and take all reasonable precautions to ensure that
food is safe for consumption. Potatoes, for example, produce glycoalkaloids that are toxic to
humans. The majority of these toxins are contained in or just under the peel, and in any eyes or
sprouts on the potato. Green skin can indicate the presence of toxins, so be sure to remove any
eyes, sprouts or green skin if you decide to use potatoes that have greened or sprouted.
There are many ways that food can become contaminated by artificial/synthetic
chemicals in a commercial kitchen. Food Handlers can accidentally cause chemical
contamination if they
Don't store cleaning products and other chemicals properly
Use too much detergent or sanitizer to clean food preparation surfaces, glassware, dishes
or cutlery (follow the manufacturer's instructions!)
Don't rinse surfaces, glassware, dishes or cutlery properly after cleaning and sanitizing (if
applicable)
Don't properly wash fruits and vegetables to remove pesticides
Use kitchen equipment or containers made from materials that are not suitable for food or
not designed to be reused (use only food-grade plastic and metals)
Use pest control products (e.g. spray, poisonous bait) improperly
To minimize the risk of chemical contamination occurring in your food business, always:
Label and store chemicals separately from food
Use the appropriate chemical for the job you're doing
Follow the chemical manufacturer's instructions with regards to dilution, contact time and
water temperature
Use chemical pest control products with extreme care or outsource pest eradication to a
professional pest control service
CROSS-CONTAMINATION
Cross-contamination is the accidental transfer of contaminants from one surface or
substance to another, usually as a result of improper handling procedures. In a food setting, the
term refers to the transfer of contaminants from a surface, object or person to food. Crosscontamination usually refers to biological contamination but can also be physical or chemical.
Cross-contamination in a food business often occurs as a result of:
Food Handlers (e.g. microorganisms from sweat, sneezing/coughing, hands, hair,
clothing)
Improper food handling techniques (e.g. reusing cutting boards or utensils for raw and
cooked food or for different types of food)
Improper cleaning and sanitizing (e.g. not properly rinsing cleaning chemicals from
preparation surfaces, dishware, glassware or equipment)
Improper food storage (e.g. storing raw meat on shelves above ready-to-eat food)
Improper waste disposal (e.g. allowing garbage containers to overflow)
Pests
Cross-contamination can also pose a risk to customers with food allergies, as trace
amounts of an allergen can be transferred in the same way that microorganisms can. Even trace
amounts of an allergen can cause a serious allergic reaction — in some cases, a lethal reaction.
As a food business owner, manager or employee, it is your responsibility to serve customers,
including those with food allergies, a safe meal.
To minimize the risk of cross-contamination occurring in your food business, always:
Move around the business in accordance with the Food Safety Plan (e.g. change soiled
kitchen clothing before moving from raw food to ready-to-eat prep stations)
Cover and store raw food on shelves below cooked or ready-to-eat food in the refrigerator
(read more on preventing contamination in the fridge)
Use separate equipment or utensils to prepare raw and cooked foods
Use separate equipment or utensils to prepare different types of foods
Prepare allergen-free meals separately
Establish allergen management procedures as part of your Food Safety Plan
Maintain high standards of personal hygiene
Wash hands frequently using the correct hand-washing technique
Handle and dispose of food scraps and waste properly (e.g. ensure garbage containers are
sealed and stored away from food)
Pests deserve special mention in this regard, as they are notorious sources of crosscontamination in food businesses. Rodents, flies and cockroaches carry untold numbers of
disease-causing bacteria and other pathogens on their bodies, in their droppings and in urine and
saliva, including Salmonella, E. coli and Listeria
As such, pest prevention and control is vitally important in the workplace. Download
the CIFS Guide to Pest Prevention and Control to find out more about the risks that common
pests pose to a food business, how to prevent pests from entering your business and what to do if
they get in
The best way to prevent food contamination in your business
The food safety best practices listed above are by no means an exhaustive list of
everything you must do to prevent food contamination and its consequences in the food business
you own, manage or work in
Everyone who works with food has a legal responsibility to take all reasonable measures
to protect the public you serve from health risks like food-borne illness and food allergies. It's
also in your best interest to do so, considering that your income is tied directly to the success of
the business
The best way to prevent food contamination and ensure food safety is through education
and training. Fully trained Food Handlers know what they need to do to control food safety
hazards and understand that there are consequences, for everyone, to taking shortcuts when it
comes to food safety
Natural toxins in food

Some natural toxins can be formed in food as defense mechanisms of plants,
through their infestation with toxin-producing mould, or through ingestion by animals of toxinproducing microorganisms.

Natural toxins can cause a variety of adverse health effects and pose a serious
health threat to both humans and livestock. Some of these toxins are extremely potent.

Adverse health effects can be acute poisoning ranging from allergic reactions to
severe stomachache and diarrhoea, and even death.

Long-term health consequences include effects on the immune, reproductive or
nervous systems, and also cancer.

A scientific expert committee jointly convened by WHO and the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) – called JECFA – is the international
body responsible for evaluating the health risk from natural toxins in food.

International standards and codes of practice to limit exposure to natural toxins
from certain foods are established by the Codex Alimentarius Commission based on JECFA
assessments.
Natural toxins are toxic compounds that are naturally produced by living organisms. These
toxins are not harmful to the organisms themselves but they may be toxic to other creatures,
including humans, when eaten. These chemical compounds have diverse structures and differ in
biological function and toxicity.
Some toxins are produced by plants as a natural defense mechanism against predators, insects or
microorganisms, or as consequence of infestation with microorganisms, such as mould, in
response to climate stress (such as drought or extreme humidity).
Other sources of natural toxins are microscopic algae and plankton in oceans or sometimes in
lakes that produce chemical compounds that are toxic to humans but not to fish or shellfish that
eat these toxin-producing organisms. When people eat fish or shellfish that contain these toxins,
illness can rapidly follow.
Some of the most commonly found natural toxins that can pose a risk to our health are described
below.





Control questions:
What are the main stages of the development of the sugar industry in Kazakhstan?
How are confectionery products classified?
What raw materials are most widely used in confectionery production?
What tasks and challenges does the confectionery industry face today?
How can modern technologies improve the efficiency of sugar production?
4 – LECTURE
MEASURES OF TOXICITY OF SUBSTANCES AND THE MAIN WAYS OF
THEIR ENTRY INTO FOOD PRODUCTS. TOXICITY MEASUREMENTS OF
SUBSTANCES
Goal: to understand the main methods of measuring toxicity in substances and how toxic
substances enter food products.
Objectives:
1. Explain the concept of toxicity and its measurement.
2. Describe LD50 and its significance in assessing acute toxicity.
3. Compare fixed-dose procedure with LD50 testing.
4. Understand concentration measurements such as ppm, ppb, and ppt.
5. Discuss ethical and scientific considerations in toxicity testing, including modern
alternatives like LC-MS.
Measuring toxicity

Lethal dose (LD50) One such population-level measure is the median lethal dose,
LD50 (lethal dose, 50%). ...

Fixed-dose procedure. ...

Parts per million. ...

Mouse bioassay for shellfish. ...

Using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry.
Toxicity can be measured by the effect the substance has on an organism, a tissue or
a cell. We know that individuals will respond differently to the same dose of a substance because
of a number of factors including their gender, age and body weight. Therefore a population-level
measure of toxicity is often used. The probability of an outcome for a population is then related
to a given individual in a population.
Lethal dose (LD50)
One such population-level measure is the median lethal dose, LD50 (lethal dose, 50%).
This is defined as the dose required to kill half the members of a specific animal population
when entering the animal’s body by a particular route. LD50 is a general indicator of a
substance’s toxicity within a short space of time. It is a measure of acute toxicity.
Most users of a substance will want to know the toxicity of that substance. The
information for an LD50 must include the substance, the route of entry and the animal species.
For example, table salt has an oral LD50 of 3 gm/kg in rats. Paracetamol has an oral LD50 of
1.944 gm/kg in rats.
Fixed-dose procedure
In 1992, the fixed-dose procedure (FDP) was proposed as an alternative test to LD50. It
uses fewer animals, and there is less pain and suffering. In this procedure, the test substance is
given at one of four fixed-dose levels (5, 50, 500 and 2,000 milligrams per kilogram) to five
male and five female rats. When a dose produces clear signs of toxicity but no death is identified,
the chemical is then classified at that level.
Parts per million
Some chemicals can cause toxicity at very low doses, so it is important to understand
how low doses compare to one another. Parts per million (ppm), parts per billion (ppb) and parts
per trillion (ppt) are the most commonly used terms to describe very small amounts of
substances.
A ppm of a chemical in water means that, in a million units of water, there would only be
one unit of the chemical. They are measures of concentration – the amount of one substance in a
larger amount of another substance. Scientists often use these measurements when measuring
a toxic chemical in a lake or toxins in the air such as greenhouse gases.
Mouse bioassay for shellfish
The standard method to test for toxins and toxicity levels in shellfish has been the
mouse bioassay. This consists of injecting extracts of shellfish into mice to determine the
presence of substances toxic to humans. After injection, if two out of three mice die within 24
hours, the sale of that particular shellfish is prohibited. Tests are then conducted systematically at
least once a week during the period of risk for toxins in that particular shellfish. The ban is only
lifted after two consecutive tests turn up negative.
The problem with this bioassay is that there is no indication which toxins are present in
the shellfish or the level of toxicity. Sometimes, the mice die for reasons other than toxins in the
shellfish, and an industry is shut down when in fact the shellfish are fine. Also, some people
object to using animals in this way.
Nature of science
Science knowledge and methodology change over time. It is only recently that chemical
testing for toxins and toxicity levels has developed in favour of mouse testing. The Cawthron
Institute in Nelson has been instrumental in developing a method using liquid chromatographymass spectrometry (LC-MS) to monitor toxins in seafood
Activity ideas
Use these activites with your students to explore measuring toxicity further:

Detecting toxins – in this activity, students explore the processes scientists used to
analyse and identify the toxic substance responsible for dog deaths on Auckland beaches.

Exploring small doses – students explore small doses in the order of parts per
million. They dilute food colouring to help them understand how small one part per million
actually is.

Ethics, mice and toxins – in this activity, students consider the use of mice for
bioassays and in establishing the lethal dose when researching/testing toxins. They consider the
rights and responsibilities of all those affected by these methods.

Having a go at chromatography – during this hands-on activity, students use
paper chromatography to separate the dye pigments in coloured sweets. This introduces students
to chromatography and helps them to understand how scientists find toxins in substances
Control Questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
What is LD50 and why is it used?
How does the fixed-dose procedure differ from LD50 testing?
What do ppm, ppb, and ppt represent?
What are the advantages and disadvantages of mouse bioassays for shellfish?
How does liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry improve toxin detection?
5 – LECTURE
THE MAIN WAYS OF CONTAMINATION OF FOOD PRODUCTS WITH
CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL XENOBIOTICS
Goal: to understand how food xenobiotics contaminate products, affect gut microbiota,
and contribute to intestinal disorders, including colorectal cancer.
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Explain the role of diet and microbiota in colorectal cancer risk.
Identify main xenobiotics formed during food processing (HCAs, PAHs, NOCs).
Describe how gut microbiota interacts with xenobiotics and modulates toxicity.
Understand the mechanisms of cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, and mutagenicity.
Discuss methods to evaluate toxicity and health impacts of food xenobiotics.
Both diet and intestinal microbiota are considered to be two major factors that influence
colonic health and the incidence of intestinal disorders such as colorectal cancer (CRC). It is
generally accepted that diet acts as an essential factor for health maintenance. However, after
several decades of research, the specific dietary compounds implicated in this protective effect
have not yet been determined, which presents the opportunity to define an optimal diet.
This review discusses the impact of diet on CRC, the generation of xenobiotics, the
interactions between these xenobiotics and gut microbiota, and identifying the factors that
contribute to a balance of the factors necessary for a healthy gut. We then discuss the
perspectives that can be used to guide our understanding of the contributions of diet and
microbiota in protection against CRC.
1.1. Impact of Diet on Colorectal Cancer
Since the beginning of agriculture and animal husbandry approximately 10,000 years ago,
humans have been exposed to profound changes both in diet and lifestyle that generally have
taken place too rapidly to allow the fixation of genetic adaptations in the population. This has
prompted many authors to suggest that the current increase in the prevalence of the so-called
“diseases of civilization” may be the result of discordance between the human Palaeolithic
gastrointestinal system and modern diets.
Considering scientific evidence regarding the link between diet and health for the most
generalized patterns worldwide, Western diets (WDs) are characterized by a high consumption
of fatty and sugary foods, salt, sauces, meat and meat products, and processed foods. Strong
scientific evidence has indicated a protective role of the Mediterranean diet (MD) against the
development of some high-prevalence and non-communicable pathologies in developed
countries such as CRC, while adherence to a Westernized dietary pattern has been recognized as
a potential risk factor.
A meta-analysis of thirteen prospective cohort studies concluded that a high-fat diet did
not increase the risk of CRC, and no reduction in the risk of this disease was found with a lowfat diet after an eight-year follow-up in a randomized clinical trial. Some authors have also
evaluated the effect of fruit and vegetable consumption on colon cancer. This risk of CRC
increased when the consumption of these two food groups was below 300 g/day. To the contrary,
the results from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition study (EPIC),
one of the largest cohort studies in the world, did not support a significant inverse association
between the consumption of fruits and vegetables and the occurrence of CRC, suggesting that
there was little benefit of increasing the consumption of fruits and vegetables in comparison to
the protection associated with an overall balanced diet. The most recent revision of the
Continuous Update Project from the World Cancer Research Fund International demonstrated
that consumption of 90 g/day of whole grain is associated with a decrease in the risk of colon
cancer, mainly attributable to the fibre content of whole grains. Among the different components
included within the concept of the WD, meat and meat products have accumulated the strongest
scientific evidence in the context of CRC and have been classified recently by the International
Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as likely carcinogenic and carcinogenic foods,
respectively. A recent systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies have associated red
meat with a significant increase in the risk of CRC (relative risk (RR) for 100 g/day of increase:
1.22; confidence interval (CI) 95%: 1.06–1.39). Nevertheless, this association was not observed
for rectal cancer (RR: 1.13; CI 95%: 0.94–1.34). In addition, whereas the intake of processed
meat has been shown to significantly increase the risk of colon cancer (RR: 1.23; CI 95%: 1.11–
1.35), this association was marginally significant for rectal cancer (RR: 1.08; CI 95%: 1.00–
1.18). It has been estimated that the risk of CRC increases 17% for every 100 g of red meat
consumed per day, a risk that would be augmented in the case of chemically treated red meats.
This information is of high importance considering that in most developed countries, as is the
case in Spain, the consumption of processed meat has increased in recent years, reaching 8
kg/capita/year in 2017, while the intake of fruits and vegetables during the same period of time
has gradually decreased. The different mechanisms by which dietary patterns may be related to
health are diverse in nature. In the literature, the net effect of the WD on CRC has been mostly
related to the overall balance between low contents of antioxidants, fibre and polyunsaturated
fatty acids and a high proportion of foods with a low-density high glycaemic index and rich in
animal fats. In addition, in recent decades, major emphasis has been placed on the link between
the ingestion of cooked and processed foods and the risk of colon cancer.
1.2. Intestinal Microbiota and Human Health
The gastrointestinal tract is inhabited by a dense microbial community known as the
‘microbiota’ that is composed of viruses and members of the three domains of life: bacteria,
archaea and eukarya. Metagenomic studies estimate that the total bacteria in our body exceeds
approximately 10 times the number of nucleated eukaryotic cells, harbouring a genetic potential
100-fold larger than that of the whole human genome]. The intestinal bacterial population is
mainly composed of members belonging to just two phyla, Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes, both
constituting approximately 80–90% of the microorganisms in this habitat. Other subdominant
microorganisms, in decreasing order of abundance (less than 10% of total intestinal bacteria), are
members of the phyla Actinobacteria, Proteobacteria and Verrucomicrobia, respectively. The
intestinal microbiota carry out crucial functions that are beneficial to the host and that could be
mainly grouped as metabolic-degradation of non-digestible carbon sources and production of
different metabolites such as vitamins and short chain fatty acids (SCFAs), protective-inhibition
of pathogen adhesion to intestinal surfaces and trophic-maintenance of the intestinal epithelium
integrity and functionality.
Intestinal microbial communities vary greatly among individuals, and it is difficult to
define a ‘healthy microbiota’. It has been proposed that distinct types of gut microbial
communities (‘enterotypes’), driven by diet and defined by their bacterial composition, are
mainly
characterized
by
relatively
higher
levels
of
a
single
bacterial
genus: Prevotella, Ruminococcus or Bacteroides ]. However, the vast interindividual variability
of the microbiota demonstrated by large-scale metagenomic studies indicates that these
differences are distributed in the population as continuous gradients of dominant taxa rather than
discrete defined clusters. Considering the concept of a healthy microbiota, despite this
interindividual taxonomic variability, the functions of the gut microbiota remain relatively stable
among individuals as there is a functional redundancy among the diverse members of this
microbial community. Thus, a “core microbiome” constituted by specific microbial gene family
combinations, metabolic modules, and regulatory pathways collectively promoting a stable hostassociated ecology, could be ideally defined. Gender, age, body mass, ethnicity, geographic
location, and immune status are intrinsic factors that influence the concept of a “healthy
microbiota”. However, it must be noted that the influence of the microbiota on other factors is
usually not considered, such as the intestinal transit time or previous drug consumption. An
imbalance in the composition and functionality of the microbiota occurring in several diseases is
known as dysbiosis. The link between disease and microbiota has been repeatedly replicated in
experiments with faecal transplantation in mice and the reproduction of the initial altered
phenotype. However, it is still challenging to determine whether changes in the microbiota are
the cause or consequence of the disease. One of the most common events occurring in dysbiosis
states is a decrease in intestinal bacterial richness, frequently accompanied by variations in the
relative abundance of some microbial genes and functions that differ among pathologies, as has
been described in obesity, inflammatory bowel disease, autism, and CRC, among others.
Specifically, the dysbiosis associated with CRC is generally characterized by an increase in the
prevalence
of
pathogenic
or
pathogen-associated
microorganisms
from
genera Fusobacterium, Porphyromonas, Peptostreptococcus, Parvimonas and Enterobacter and
by a depletion of gram-positive fibre-fermenting Clostridia. Furthermore, the consumption of
chemically and thermally processed foods and the adherence to a WD have been shown to drive
specific changes in gut microbiota composition and activity towards the production of
metabolites with potential carcinogenic effects. Thus, a comprehensive understanding of how
these compounds derived from food processing can interact with the microbiota and microbiome
is necessary to determine their true impact on overall gastrointestinal health.
2. Food Processing and Xenobiotics
Although the exact mechanism by which meat is related to cancer is unknown, several
authors have postulated that the thermal formation of different carcinogens during cooking, such
as heterocyclic amines (HCAs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), the addition of Nnitroso compounds (NOCs) to cured meats, the endogenous NOC formation from haem iron and
the generation of lipid and protein oxidation products, are included within the possible
mechanisms underlying this association (Figure 1).
Figure 1
Schematic representation of the different hypotheses currently available that contribute to
explaining the relationship between diet and colorectal cancer. HCAs, heterocyclic amines; NAs,
nitrosamines; NOCs, N-nitroso compounds; PAHs, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons; ROS,
reactive oxygen species; SCFA, short chain fatty acids. More details are explained in the text.
In this regard, haem iron, in addition to being related to the production of NOCs at the
intestinal level, has been associated with the generation of aldehydes with cytotoxic and
genotoxic properties. Additionally, meat processing involves the addition of nitrites, salt, smoke
and the application of different grades of temperature depending on the cooking method, all of
which are related to an increased risk of colon cancer. From xenobiotics, HCAs have
accumulated the strongest scientific evidence as cancer risk factors in epidemiological and
interventional studies (Table 1) and were classified by the IARC as potential carcinogens. In
recent years, more than twenty-five HCAs have been identified in regular food products, formed
from creatinine, creatine, hexoses, amino acids and some dipeptides, which are present mainly in
the muscle of meats and fish.
Table 1
Observational studies in recent years associating heterocyclic aromatic amines and
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons with colorectal cancer.
Analytical
Year No. Subjects
Source Dose
Pathology
Category
HCAs
MeIQx
2018 407,270
DiMeIQx
PhIP
Red
meat
n.a a
PAHs
MeIQx and DiMeIQx association with
all anatomical subsites of colorectal
cancer. PhIP associations with total
colorectal and colon cancers. Not
evidenced an association between
ingested B(a)P and CRC
B(a)P
2018 76,657
HCAs
50
ng/day
MeIQx
n.a a
DiMeIQx
Red
meat
PhIP
Association of HCAs, B(a)P, and
40
ng/day mutagenicity index with the risk of
colorectal adenomas
n.a a
PAHs
B(a)P
HCAs
total 3707:
1062 cases
2013
and
1645
controls
MeIQx
DiMeIQ
Red
meat
n.a a
Colon cancer
PhIP
HCAs can be classified into two large groups according to their molecular structures and
metabolic pathways: aminocarbolines (ACs), or pyrolytic amines, and aminoimidazoazarenes
(AIAs), or thermal amines. ACs are formed by the pyrolysis of proteins at temperatures above
300 °C, while AIAs are generated by applying temperatures from 100 to 300 °C to dietary
sources of sugars, amino acids and creatinine. As the mutagenic activity of HCAs increases with
temperature and with the browning degree of cooked food, cooking methods such as frying,
grilling or roasting lead to the formation of higher amounts of HCAs than boiling, steaming or
braising. In this regard, data from the EPIC revealed the existence of a large variation in the
intake of these foodstuffs and in the cooking methods among European countries. The
Netherlands has been found to be the population with the highest intake of red meat prepared at
high temperature (mean intake of 39.4 g/day and 59.7 g/day for women and men, respectively.
PAHs are formed in a large variety of foods, including oils, grains and vegetables, after
applying a heat treatment for cooking (frying, baking, grilling, etc.) or processing. Among the
different types of PAHs classified by the IARC, benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) has been classified as
carcinogenic to humans. Nevertheless, given the ubiquity of PAHs in food and their presence as
contaminants, it is very difficult to assess to what extent the amount ingested from food may
contribute to cancer development. PAHs can be formed by pyrolysis of organic matter at high
temperatures, by direct contact of lipid droplets with a heat source, by the smoke produced
during cooking, or by the incomplete combustion of coal or wood in barbecues or grills. The
maximum levels of PAHs have been found in smoked foods and grilled meats].
As with many other dietary components, the impact of xenobiotics related to food
processing on health depends on the dose of intake and the frequency of exposure to the toxic
agent/s. In this regard, some authors have highlighted that chronic exposure to contaminants may
progressively induce a low-grade inflammatory status in the host, partly mediated by the aryl
hydrocarbon receptor, a cytosolic transcription factor activated by different hydrophobic
chemicals and present in different mammalian cells. With considerable variation among
countries, the amount of HCAs consumed mainly depends on the cooking method, temperature,
the meat or fish itself and the nutritional composition of the foodstuffs. However, these factors
are very difficult to assess accurately through dietary questionnaires for several reasons. First,
cooking methods are highly variable over time. Second, there are no standardized tools currently
available, such as photographs of scales, to quantify the degree of browning in foods, so there is
high variability between studies. Third, the interaction between the different components of the
diet is too difficult to determine long-term. In addition, after the intake of red meat, other
carcinogenic compounds associated with many processed meats, such as NOCs, can be formed
endogenously by the intestinal microbiota and can be activated to act as carcinogens/mutagens.
3. Effect of Food Processing-Borne Xenobiotics on the Gut Microbiota
The human colon is exposed to multiple compounds of dietary origin, as well as those
resulting from digestion, intestinal microbial metabolism, and host excretory processes. Intestinal
microbiota is known to produce faecal metabolites, with genotoxic and mutagenic potential,
some of which have been compiled on Table 2.
Table 2
Cytotoxic/genotoxic mechanisms of endogenous molecules and compounds generated by
intestinal bacteria that could be involved in CRC. Direct mechanisms refer to those that promote
genotoxic and/or cytotoxic action directly. Indirect mechanisms are those that cause damage at
different levels, from which a cytotoxic and/or genotoxic action is derived.
Experiment
Molecules/Compo Microbial
al Approach Mode
of
Main Mechanism
unds Involved
Group
Used
for Action
Study
Typhoid toxin
Direct
mechanis
ms
Salmonella
enterica serova
r Typhi
Genotoxin
s
Cytolethal
distending toxin
Proteobacteria
Colibactin
Escherichia
DNAse
activity;
In vitro and induction of
animal
symptoms
models
characteristic
of
typhoid
fever
Cell
lines
and primary
cell
and
mouse
models
of
chronic
infections
Eukaryotic
DNase
activity;
Proinflamati
on
and
carcinogenic
potential
DNA
Main Mechanism
Molecules/Compo
unds Involved
Microbial
Group
Experiment
al Approach Mode
Used
for Action
Study
coli group B
cells
of
doublestrand breaks
DNA
doublestrand breaks
Epidemiolog
in vitro and
ical
and
in
vivo;
animal
enhanced
model
tumour
growth
by
senescence
Cytotoxinassociated gene A Helicobacter
Vacuolating
pylori
cytotoxin A
Alteration
of
host
cellular
cycle
Enterotoxin
Bacteroides
fragilis
Adhesin A
Fusobacterium
nucleatum
ExoS exotoxin
Pseudomonas
aeruginosa
DNA
damage;
Increases IL8; produces
reactive
oxygen
species
Molecular,
(ROS) and
experimental
nitric oxide;
and
increases
epidemiologi
concentration
cal
s of cyclooxygenase 2;
decreases
apoptosis;
and increases
cell
proliferation
In vitro and
epidemiologi
cal
In vitro and
epidemiologi
cal
In
vitro,
experimental
and
epidemiologi
DNA
damage; high
levels
of
ROS;
Diarrheal
disease,
associated
with
colorectal
cancer
Activation of
β
catenin
pathway
Activation of
pathways
with
final
mechanism
Main Mechanism
Molecules/Compo
unds Involved
Microbial
Group
Experiment
al Approach Mode
Used
for Action
Study
cal
Cysteine protease- Shigella
like
flexneri
In vitro and
epidemiologi
cal
Avirulence protein Salmonella
A
enterica
In vitro and
mouse model
of
inflammatio
n-associated
cancer
Cytotoxic
necrotising factor
In vitro and
animal
models
Escherichia
coli
Cycle-inhibiting
factor
Secondary
acids
Anaerobic
bacteria with 7α
bile
dehydroxylatio
n activity of
primary
bile
acids
In vitro
In
vitro
colon cells
and animal
models
of
leading
to
DNA
damage;
unknown
mechanisms
in
cancer
generation
Potassium
outflow
conducting
to
ROS
production;
induce
degradation
of p53; DNA
damage;
dysentery
Target
βcatenin
pathway;
colonic
tumorigenesi
s and tumour
progression
Activates
Rho GTPase;
modifies
cytoskeleton;
triggers G1-S
transition;
downregulate
mismatch
repair genes;
the role of
CNF
in
infections in
not clear
Inhibition of
mitosis
Changes in
physicochem
ical
membrane
properties;
Apoptosis
and genomic
Main Mechanism
Molecules/Compo
unds Involved
Microbial
Group
Experiment
al Approach Mode
Used
for Action
Study
of
damage by
ROS;
Deoxycholic
acid
is
carcinogenic
at high doses
and
longterm
treatment in
animal
models
Indirect
mechanis
ms
Oxidative
stress
Peptostreptoco
ccus
anaerobius
Increase of
human colon
tumour
tissues and
adenomas;
these
bacteria
increase
In vivo, in
colon
vitro and
dysplasia in a
epidemiologi mouse model
cal
of CRC by
induction of
ROS levels,
which
promotes
cholesterol
synthesis and
cell
proliferation.
Enterococcus
faecalis
Induction of
ROS,
In vitro and
activation of
in vivo
macrophages
models,
; promotion
epidemiologi
of
cal
tumorigenesi
s
Reactive oxygen
species
Faecal matrix
In vitro
Unknown
reducing
Main Mechanism
Molecules/Compo
unds Involved
Microbial
Group
Experiment
al Approach Mode
Used
for Action
Study
of
agent
Formation
of H2S
Inflammat
ion
H2S
Epidemiolog
ical and in
vitro models
Activation of
cycloEpidemiolog oxygenase 2,
ical and
interleukin 8
molecular
production,
and cell
proliferation
Wall-extracted
antigen
Streptococcus
bovis
Listeriolysin O
Pore
formation in
intestinal
host cells;
In vitro and
Listeria
Prevention of
epidemiologi
monocytogenes
recruitment
cal
of repair
complex to
DNA breaks;
listeriosis
Secreted effector
protein EspF
In vitro
Downregulation
DNA
mismatch
repair
Colonic cells
Increased
anion
superoxide
production
and
genotoxic
Disabling
cellular
DNA
repair
process
Protein
metabolis
m
Sulfatereducing
bacteria
Promotes
instability or
cumulative
mutations in
a
predisposed
genetic
background
Phenol/indol/pcresol/
Escherichia
coli
Intestinal
bacteria
Main Mechanism
Molecules/Compo
unds Involved
Microbial
Group
Experiment
al Approach Mode
Used
for Action
Study
of
effects
Fecapentanes
Ammonium
Bacteroides sp.
Intestinal
bacteria
In vitro; In
vivo
Cytotoxic
and
mutagenic
effects via
ROS
production;
Controversial
in vivo effect
In vitro
Antiprolifera
tive effect
without
decrease of
cell viability
Cytotoxicity is the capability of certain substances to cause cell injury, with deleterious
effects on metabolism, structure and/or viability of cells. Genotoxicity is the capability to induce
damage to cellular genetic material, altering the DNA sequence or modifying its structure; more
specifically, mutagenicity refers to the capacity of some genotoxic agents to produce alterations
(mutations) in the DNA sequence. Some potential faecal mutagens can be produced by the
intestinal microbiota, including microbial genotoxins. Other compounds are formed
endogenously from dietary constituents, such as nitrates, dietary amines and cholesterol, or are
synthesized from precursors originating from human metabolism, such as NOCs, fecapentaenes,
long chain fatty acids, and secondary bile acids generated by the metabolism of intestinal
bacteria. Table 2 summarizes the cytotoxic and genotoxic mechanisms of endogenous molecules
and compounds generated by the intestinal bacteria that could be involved in CRC. A group of
toxic substances are from exogenous origins and include mycotoxins, plant glycosides, some
food additives and notably, two groups of xenobiotics discussed in this review that are formed by
pyrolysis during food cooking and processing: HCA and PAH.
Studies of faecal genotoxicity and mutagenicity related to dietary habits have revealed
different levels of toxicity associated with different dietary patterns, as well as an association
between high faecal genotoxicity and an augmented risk of CRC. Although some authors have
suggested the possibility of using faecal genotoxicity as a preventive and early marker for the
risk of CRC, more studies are needed to support this proposal. The relationship between
cytotoxicity and intestinal disease is currently less clear. Moreover, it is necessary to elucidate
the causal role of the different genotoxic and cytotoxic compounds on CRC and the influence of
dietary patterns, intestinal microbiota, host physiology and lifestyle on the resulting toxicity in
the intestinal environment. In this sense, some studies indicate that the presence of co-mutagenic,
inhibitory or potentiating factors could modify the toxicity of genotoxic and cytotoxic
compounds and hence the resulting intestinal toxicity.
3.1. Impact of Xenobiotics on Gut Microbiota
The human gut microbiota interacts with food xenobiotics in dual ways: xenobiotics
influence the microbiota, and in turn, the microbiota can also metabolize and transform
xenobiotics, altering their toxicity. Few studies are currently available that evaluate the impact of
food xenobiotics on the gut microbiota and the consequences on the host immune system and
metabolism. Ribière et al. (2016) found that oral exposure to benzo(a)pyrene led to moderate
inflammation in ileal and colonic mucosa and induced changes in the gut microbiota
composition, without affecting the alpha-diversity index, in a murine model. Among dominant
intestinal
taxa,
bacterial
families
such
as Bacteroidaceae, Porphyromonadaceae and Paraprevotellaceae showed a significant increase
in their relative abundance, whereas Lactobacillaceae and Verrucomicrobiaceae (only
represented by Akkermansia muciniphila) decreased; in contrast, among the less abundant
microorganisms, the Actinobacteria class (mainly represented by the genus Bifidobacterium) and
some members of the Coriobacteriaceae, Rikenellaceae, and Desulfovibrionaceae families
displayed increased abundance after mice were exposed to benzo(a)pyrene. Interestingly, Defois
et al., using in vitro faecal models, demonstrated important changes in the metabolome and
transcriptome of the human gut microbiota upon exposure to a variety of food contaminants
without affecting the structural composition of the microbial community thus highlighting
important changes in microbial metabolic activity. Changes in the volatolome affected sulphur,
phenolic and ester compounds. The transcriptome revealed an increase in lipid metabolism
processes, cell wall/plasma membrane/periplasmic space and DNA repair and replication
systems, whereas the transcription of genes related to glycolysis/gluconeogenesis and bacterial
chemotaxis towards simple carbohydrates as well as ribosome, translation and nucleic acid
binding was downregulated.
3.2. Impact of the Gut Microbiota on the Toxicity of Xenobiotics
The intestinal microbiota has the capacity to modify the toxicity of food xenobiotics by
direct microbial interference with these compounds and/or by modulating host-microbial
interactions. First, some lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and other microorganisms present in the
human gut can directly bind or metabolize diet-derived HCAs or other xenobiotics, contributing
either to the sequestration and excretion of these compounds in faeces or to their transformation
into less toxic compounds, which potentially helps to prevent DNA damage and generation and
progression of pre-neoplastic lesions. The gut microbiota can also metabolize xenobiotics
transforming them into chemically derived molecules with enhanced mutagenic activity. Thus,
additional studies are necessary to elucidate the range of bacteria capable of carrying out each of
these transformations of different xenobiotics originating during food processing, the metabolic
effects of such biotransformation on the microbiota and host, and the relevance of these
transformations to intestinal disease and carcinogenesis.
The modification of the toxicity of xenobiotics can also occur via host-microbiota
interactions. The most known of these interactions is the exacerbation of the toxicity of
xenobiotics through enterohepatic cycling. Xenobiotics are often conjugated to glucuronic acid
in the liver (one of the pathways of phase II detoxification in the human body), stored in the
gallbladder, and released into the intestine with bile during digestion. When the conjugated
xenobiotic enters the intestine, the microbial β-glucuronidases can cleave the deactivated
glucuronidated molecule and release the unconjugated xenobiotic, turning it back again into a
toxic molecule. The de-glucuronidation of xenobiotics by microbial β-glucuronidases, such as
those found in many enterobacteria and in some microorganisms from
the Clostridium and Bacteroides groups, is a phenomenon already demonstrated to occur with
some HCAs, but it remains unknown whether it could be a general detoxification mechanism
that also affects other HCAs and PAHs. Another possible way of increasing the toxicity of
xenobiotics in the gut is the alteration of host gene expression by the microbiota. Cytochrome
P450 comprises different hepatic enzymes that participate in phase I of detoxification. One of
these enzymes, CYP1A1 (aryl-4 monooxygenase), has been linked to the intestinal detoxification
of benzo(a)pyrene depending on TLR2, a host cell membrane receptor triggered by bacterial
lipoproteins and other cell wall components; TLR2-deficient mice had reduced ability to clear
benzo(a)pyrene and developed colon polyps after dietary supplementation with this compound.
The results of the study of Do and colleagues suggest the interesting possibility that the gut
microbiota could modulate the host xenobiotic metabolism through TLR2 signalling.
Conventional tests available for the study of genotoxicity, mutagenicity and cytotoxicity
of faecal waters are mostly based on those developed to routinely characterize potential hazards
of chemicals, as indicated in the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD) Health Effects Test Guidelines. Some tests are available for determining genotoxicity in
vitro, in vivo and/or ex vivo; the comet test is the most commonly used, but others, such as the
micronucleus assay (MN), sister chromatid exchange assay (SCE) or the SOS chromotest are
also used. The Ames test is by far the most extensively applied to assess in vitro mutagenicity
and is based on the capacity to cause reverse mutations in defective genes for essential amino
acids (such as histidine or tryptophan) in auxotrophic strains of Salmonella Typhimurium
and Escherichia coli.
Intestinal cytotoxicity could be evaluated in adenocarcinoma cell lines, generally Caco-2
and HT-29. Some assays determine the effect of exposure to toxic agents on cell proliferation
capacity. Cytotoxicity can also be evaluated by determining mitochondrial function or membrane
integrity. Among the most commonly used are the dye exclusion test and the MTT assay. Realtime electronic sensing (xCELLigence system; Roche, Basel, Switzerland) monitors variations in
the impedance of cultures of carcinogenic cell lines at the proliferation or confluence states using
gold microelectronic sensor arrays.
Abbreviations
ACs
Aminocarbolines
AIAs
Aminoimidazoazarenes
ATP
Adenosine triphosphate
B(a)P
Benzo(a) pyrene
CI
Confidence interval
CRC
Colorectal cancer
CYP1A1 Aryl-4 monooxigenase
CYP450 Cytochrome P450
DiMeIQx 2-Amino-3,4,8-trimethylimidazo[4,5-f] quinoxaline
EPIC
European Prospective Investigation into Cancer
HCAs
Heterocyclic amines
IARC
The International Agency for Research on Cancer
LAB
Lactic acid bacteria
MD
Mediterranean Diet
MeIQ
2-Amino-3,4-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f] quinoline
MeIQx 2-Amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f] quinoxaline
MN
Micronucleous assay
MTT
(3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide)
NAs
Nitrosamines
NOCs
N-Nitroso compounds
OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
PAHs
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
PhIP
2-Amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b] pyridine
ROS
Reactive oxygen species
RR
Relative risk
SCE
SCFA
WD
Sister Chromatid Exchange assay
Short chain fatty acids
Western Diet
Control Questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
What dietary patterns are associated with increased CRC risk?
Which xenobiotics are commonly formed during high-temperature cooking of meat?
How does gut microbiota modulate the toxicity of xenobiotics?
What is dysbiosis and how is it related to colorectal cancer?
Name two common assays used to measure genotoxicity and cytotoxicity.
6 – LECTURE
CYANOGENIC GLYCOSIDES. BIOGENIC AMINES. ALKALOIDS
Lecture Goal: to introduce students to the main classes of toxic and biologically active
plant-derived compounds—cyanogenic glycosides, biogenic amines, and alkaloids—their
sources, mechanisms of action, toxicological characteristics, and effects on human health.
Lecture Objectives:
1. To study the sources and chemical nature of cyanogenic glycosides, biogenic amines, and
alkaloids in food products.
2. To examine the mechanisms of toxic action and bioavailability pathways of cyanide and
biogenic amines in the human body.
3. To become familiar with examples of common alkaloids (tropane, purine, pyrrolizidine)
and their pharmacological and toxicological effects.
4. To analyze the influence of technological and biochemical factors on the formation of
biogenic amines in food products.
5. To review methods of control, prevention, and risk assessment for human health when
consuming products containing cyanogenic glycosides, biogenic amines, and alkaloids.
The major edible plants in which cyanogenic glycosides occur are almonds, sorghum,
cassava, lima beans, stone fruits and bamboo shoots. A cyanogenic food of particular economic
importance is cassava (Manihot esculenta), which is also known by the names manioc, yuca and
tapioca.
Following a request from the European Commission, the European Food Safety
Authority (EFSA) Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM Panel) evaluated the
risks to human health related to the presence of cyanogenic glycosides (CNGs) in foods other
than raw apricot kernels. Previous assessments from the EFSA, in particular the opinion on acute
health risks related to the presence of CNGs in raw apricot kernels and products derived from
raw apricot kernels (2016), and assessments from other international and national scientific
bodies have been used as a starting point for the evaluation together with publications identified
in a targeted literature search. EFSA guidance documents and general principles for risk
assessment have been applied for hazard and exposure assessment in this opinion.
CNGs contain chemically bound cyanide and are present in foods such as almonds,
linseed or cassava. When the plant cells are damaged, by for example grinding or chewing,
CNGs and their degrading enzymes are brought into contact and cyanide is released. Cyanide is
readily absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and rapidly distributed to all organs. Peak
concentrations of cyanide in blood and tissue depend on the amount of CNGs in the food
consumed and the rate of release of cyanide which in turn depends on the presence and activity
of the degrading enzymes. Peak blood cyanide concentration (assessed by serial measurements
of cyanide in whole-blood after ingestion) can be used as a reliable biomarker for acute cyanide
exposure. In a human bioavailability study, mean peak concentrations of cyanide in blood were
different after consumption cassava root, linseed and persipan, indicating a fast and practically
complete release of cyanide after chewing of bitter almonds and cassava roots but not with
linseed and persipan.
In experimental animals, acute toxicity of cyanide and CNGs is characterised by
dyspnoea, ataxia, arrhythmia, convulsions, loss of consciousness, decreased respiration and
death. Upon repeated dose exposure to cyanide, histopathological alterations in the thyroid,
kidney, liver and central nervous system (CNS), and changes in epididymis cauda weights,
sometimes paralleled with clinical signs have been reported, but the findings are not consistent
between different studies. With the CNGs linamarin and amygdalin, alterations in haematology
and clinical chemistry parameters and histopathological alterations were seen. With gari (a
cassava product for direct human consumption) and cassava, behavioural changes have been
observed. There are indications of developmental effects in hamsters exposed to CNGs or
cassava and in rats exposed to potassium cyanide (KCN), which were often observed in the
presence of maternal toxicity. Cyanide is not genotoxic. No information is available on the
genotoxicity of CNGs.
The acute lethal oral dose of cyanide in humans is reported to be between 0.5 and
3.5 mg/kg body weight (bw). The toxic threshold value for cyanide in blood is considered to be
between 0.5 mg/L (ca. 20 μM) and 1.0 mg/L (ca. 40 μM), the lethal threshold value ranges
between 2.5 mg/L (ca. 100 μM) and 3.0 mg/L (ca. 120 μM). Signs of acute cyanide poisoning in
humans include headache, vertigo, agitation, respiratory depression, metabolic acidosis,
confusion, coma, convulsions and death. Poisoning cases, some fatal, have resulted from
ingestion of amygdalin preparations, bitter almonds and cassava. Several neurological disorders
and other diseases have been associated with chronic exposure to cyanide in populations where
cassava constitutes the main source of calories.
The primary mode of action for acute toxicity of cyanide is the inhibition of oxidative
phosphorylation leading to anaerobic energy production. Due to the high oxygen and energy
demand, brain and heart are particularly sensitive to cyanide which can result in hypoxia,
metabolic acidosis and impairment of vital functions. The role of cyanide in neurological
impairment upon long-term consumption of foods containing CNGs has not been elucidated.
The CONTAM Panel concluded that there are no data indicating that the acute reference
dose (ARfD) for cyanide of 20 μg/kg bw, established in 2016, should be revised and that it is
applicable for acute effects of cyanide regardless of the dietary source. For exposure to cyanide
from foods other than raw apricot kernels, bitter almonds and cassava roots, this ARfD is likely
to be over-conservative because of the lower bioavailability of cyanide from these foods, but
establishment of different ARfDs for different types of food is not appropriate. However, to
account for the differences in cyanide bioavailability after ingestion of certain food items, for
cassava and cassava derived products and for almonds a factor of 1, for linseed a factor of 3 and
for marzipan/persipan, a factor of 12 was calculated based on results from a human
bioavailability study. Occurrence data on these foods were divided by the respective factors for
inclusion in the exposure assessment. For all other food items, no data on bioavailability were
available, and a factor of 1 was used as a default worst-case value assuming complete cyanide
bioavailability. The limited data from animal and human studies do not allow the derivation of a
chronic health-based guidance value (HBGV) for cyanide (CN).
A total of 2,586 analytical results on total cyanide in foods were available in the EFSA
database (of which about 89% came from Germany and of which 46% were left-censored) to
estimate acute and chronic dietary exposure. Highest occurrence values were reported in bitter
almonds (mean concentration 1,437 mg/kg) and in linseed (mean concentration 192.1 mg/kg).
No occurrence data were available in the database for cassava and products derived thereof.
Estimated acute exposures to cyanide originating from foods containing CNGs across 43
different dietary surveys and all age groups ranged from 0.0 to 13.5 μg/kg bw per day (mean,
minimum lower bound (LB) to mean maximum upper bound (UB)) and 0.0–51.7 μg/kg bw per
day (95th percentile (P95), minimum LB to maximum UB). Estimated chronic exposures to
cyanide originating from foods containing CNGs across 38 different dietary surveys and all age
groups ranged from 0.0 to 13.5 μg/kg bw per day (mean, minimum LB to maximum UB) and
from 0.6 to 34.5 μg/kg bw per day (P95, minimum LB to maximum UB). The highest acute and
chronic exposures were estimated for ‘Infants’, ‘Toddlers’ and ‘Other children’ and the main
contributors to acute and chronic exposure to cyanide in all age groups were ‘Biscuits (cookies)’,
‘Juice or nectar from fruits’ and ‘Pastries and cakes’.
Estimated mean dietary acute exposures did not exceed the ARfD of 20 μg CN/kg bw in
any age group. At the P95, the ARfD was exceeded by up to about 2.5-fold in some consumption
surveys for ‘Infants’, ‘Toddlers’, ‘Other children’ and the adolescent age groups. The CONTAM
Panel notes that these are likely overestimations, in particular because of the assumptions made
regarding full cyanide bioavailability from foods other than bitter almonds, cassava roots,
linseed, persipan and marzipan.
A chronic exposure assessment has also been carried out, although there are insufficient
data to characterise potential risks of chronic exposure to cyanide in a European population.
In addition, exposure ‘back-calculations’ have been carried out to estimate the amount of
certain food items that can be ingested without exceeding the ARfD. This was done for raw
cassava root, gari, cassava flour, ground linseed and bitter almonds as well as for food items for
which an EU maximum level (ML) for cyanide has been established. The bioavailability factors
applied for the exposure assessment have also been applied for these calculations. Depending on
the body weight, consumption of 1.3–14.7 g ground linseed containing a high concentration of
407 mg CN/kg could reach the ARfD, the corresponding values for consumption of raw cassava
root containing a high concentration of 235 mg CN/kg, being 0.7–8.5 g. If gari or cassava flour
containing the respective Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex) MLs of 2 mg total CN/kg
and 10 mg total CN/kg, respectively, are consumed, the ARfD is reached with consumption of
87–1,000 g gari and with 17–200 g cassava flour. Consumption of 0.1–1.4 g bitter almonds
(1,477 mg CN/kg) reaches the ARfD. This corresponds to an amount of less than half a small
kernel in ‘Toddlers’ and of 1 large kernel in ‘Adults’. If marzipan or persipan containing the
respective EU maximum limit (ML) of 50 mg CN/kg are consumed, the ARfD is reached with
42–480 g. Consumption of 35–400 g canned stone fruits containing the respective EU ML of
5 mg total cyanide/kg leads to an exposure equivalent to the ARfD. If stone fruit marc spirits and
stone fruit spirits contain the EU ML of 35 mg total cyanide/kg, the ARfD is reached by
consumption of 26–57 g, depending on the body weight of the individual.
The overall uncertainty incurred with the present assessment is considered as high. It is
more likely to overestimate than to underestimate the risk.
Validated methods for the quantification of CNGs and total cyanide and investigations on
the variation of hydrolytic enzymes are needed in different foods. The variation of hydrolytic
enzymes in food crops and the potential to identify cultivars of crops with relatively low content
of CNG or of hydrolytic enzymes need to be investigated. More occurrence data for cyanide in
raw and processed foods and consumption data for CNG containing foods are also needed.
Human toxicokinetics of CNGs and released cyanide after ingestion of food items containing
CNGs need to be studied further. More information is needed on the presence of hydrolytic
activity in processed foods. More data are needed to evaluate the potential of cyanide and food
items that contain CNGs to cause chronic effects.
Biogenic amines are compounds that are commonly found in food and beverages such
as meat, fish, cheese, vegetables, wine, etc. The most important BAs found in food are
histamine, tyramine, putrescine, cadaverine, β-phenylethylamine, agmatine, tryptamine,
serotonin (SRT), spermidine, and spermine.
The most common biogenic amines found in foods are histamine, tyramine, cadaverine,
2-phenylethylamine, spermine, spermidine, putrescine, tryptamine, and agmatine.
Biogenic amine (BA)s are nitrogenous, and organic compounds and can be found in some
fermented foods such as cheese, sausage, fermented vegetable, wine, and fish. Main interest in
BAs is due to their potential toxicity to human health and indicators of food quality. Normally,
small amounts of BAs could be detoxified by intestine amine oxidases. However, when the
detoxification ability of amine oxidases is disturbed or inhibited due to high amounts of BA
ingestion, serious health problems can occur.
Numerous studies have identified that histamine is the cause of scombroid food poisoning
which can occur consuming fish or fish products with histamine level at more than 1000 ppm.
Histamine concentrations in tuna fillet in oil, tuna and fresh yellow fin tuna loin are 4398, 3110,
and 1774 mg/Kg, respectively. It has been shown that cadaverine and putrescine can enhance the
toxicity of histamine and react with nitrite to form carcinogenic nitrosamines. Overall, BAs
could cause nausea, vomit, diarrhea, abdominal pain, causing rash, itching, headache, and
hypertension. Their toxicity levels vary depending on the amount of BAs ingested and sensitivity
of human.
Concentration of BAs in foods, especially fermented food products, is affected by several
factors in the manufacturing process, including hygienic of raw materials, microbial
composition, condition and duration of fermentation.
Hygienic condition of raw materials
It has been reported that BAs are naturally present in grapes, raw meats, and fresh milk
before being fermented. It has been reported that poor hygienic meat used in sausage can
significantly reduce the capacity of amino acid decarboxylase negative strain L. saki CTC 494. It
has been reported high amounts of spermidine, putrescine, and cadaverine have appeared in the
pericarp of berries during wine making process, and high concentrations of spermidine,
putrescine, and cardavarine have also been found in seeds of grape berries. Those originated
from fresh Indian anchovy contained lower amounts of BAs compare to those stored at 35 °C for
8 and 16 h before being used to produce fish sauce, with anchovy stored for 16 h showing the
highest level of biogenic amines.
Microorganisms with biogenic amines producing ability
Several microbial groups have been identified to possess decarboxylase activity. It has
been
shown
that
some
microorganisms
such
as Lactobacilli, Pseudomonads , Enterobacteriaceae, and Enterococci present in meat products
possess decarboxylase activity. Cadaverine and putrescine can be produced considerably by most
yeasts. However, only a few yeasts such as Debaryomyces hansenii and Yarrowia
lipolytica isolated from cheese can produce histamine and tyramine. Some bacteria species
isolated from seafood have been verified as histamine producers, including Staphylococcus
xylosus isolated from salted semi-preserved anchovies, Morganella morganii, Hafnia alvei,
and Klebsiella pneumoniae isolated from tuna, and Aeromonas hydrophila isolated from
mackerel. Pessione et al. have reported that Lactobacillus sp. 30a and Lactobacillus sp. w53
isolated from wine are histamine, putrescine, and cadaverine producers. In yogurt, the formation
of BAs, especially tyramine and histamine, is due to Streptococcus thermophilus. A number of
studies have demonstrate histamine producing bacteria in soybean fermented products,
including Staphylococcus pasteuri, Bacillus amyloliquefaciens, Bacillus subtilis, and Bacillus
megaterium in miso, Bacillus subtilis in sufu, Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus pasteuri in
natto, and Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus pasteuri, and Staphylocuccus capitis in douchi.
Temperature and pH
Increasing temperature during prolonged storage or process can significantly affect the
formation of BA in food products. In fish, 25 °C has been found to be the ideal temperature
for Morganella morgani to produce histamine. Tyramine content in meat-fat mixture produced
by Carnobacterium divergens at 25 °C is higher than that produced at 15 °C. Moreover, BAs can
be produced by mesophilic bacteria significantly at temperature ranging from 20 to 37 °C.
Marcobal et al. have shown that tyramine content produced by bacteria such as L.
brevis and Enterococcus faecium is higher when temperature is higher. Krizek et al. have found
that content of BAs in carp meat is increased when storage temperature is increased.
Moreno-Arribas et al. have reported that the optimum pH for decarboxylation activity is
around 5.0. However, in wine manufacturing, increasing pH levels can increase the accumulation
of biogenic amines. It has been suggested that histamine production in sausage is related to
insufficient decrease in pH during the first day of the ripening process. Similarly, Masson et al.
have demonstrated that C. divergens can form more amount of tyramine in meat-fat mixture at
pH 5.3 than that at pH 4.9.
Biogenic amines in foods
Levels of BAs presented in foods are different depending on the type of food products
(Table 1). They are also influenced by the nature and availability of microorganisms in foods.
Large amounts of BAs can be found in foods such as cheese, fermented vegetables, fish and fish
products, wine, dried meat products, and sausages. Several studies have reported high levels of
BAs in foods, particularly in cheese and fish. Most food poisoning cases of BAs are believed to
be caused by histamine and tyramine. Due to its vasoactive characteristic, histamine could cause
flushing, abdominal cramps, headache, and hypertension.
Table 1
Biogenic amines contents in food products
Products
Biogenic amines (mg/kg)
His
Tyr
Put
Cad Spm Smd Phe
Tryp
Soppresata
21.9 178
98.8
60.8 35.5 40
3.4
NA
Salsiccia
ND
76.7
19.7
6.7
2.8
18.8
ND
NA
Saucisson (industrial
71
220
279
103
91
5.1
4
3.9
Saucisson (traditional) 15.3 164.3 223
71.3 83.7 4.3
1.3
NA
Belgian sausage
4.1
36.8
15.1
2.5
NA
NA
0.9
NA
Finish sausage
54
88
79
50
31
4
13
14
Russian sausage
89
110
93
10
33
5
11
22
Danish sausage
9
54
130
180
37
7
2
27
Meetwurst
21
72
77
6
29
6
3
18
Egyptian sausage
5.25 19.25 38.62 19.2 1.75 2.3
33.25 12.7
Intake of a low amount of BAs through food is normally not harmful for health as it can
be detoxified by amino oxidases present in the gut. The enzymes including monoamine oxidase
(MAO), diamine oxidase (DAO), and histamine N-methyltransferase (HNMT) can metabolize
dietary BA in healthy person. However, BAs could be transformed to toxic metabolites
responsible for serious human health problem when its amount in food is too high or when
detoxification ability is inhibited or disturbed in human. Ingestion of BA for more than 40 mg
per meal can significantly increase the risk of food poisoning. It has been found that weak
enzymatic amine degradation activity due to genetic factor or impaired function of MAO, DAO,
and HNMT can increase a person’s sensitivity to BAs. Gastrointestinal diseases, genetic
predisposition, and medication with DAO inhibitor can inhibit amino oxidase. The action of
MAO or DAO can be inhibited by ethanol and acetaldehyde compounds present in wine.
Therefore, consumption of wine, beer, and alcohol beverages can increase toxicity risk of BAs.
Food poisoning due to consumption of fish containing high amounts of histamine causes
dizziness, faintness, burning sensation in the mouth, inability to swallow, and itching. Symptoms
of poisoning can appear within several minutes to 3 h after ingestion of fish containing histamine
at levels higher than 1 mg/g. Tyramine, phenylethylamine, and tryptamine are mainly cause
hypertension, headache, pupil dilatation, palpebral tissue dilatation, respiration increasing, and
blood pressure increasing.
Most cases of food poisoning due to tyramine are associated with cheese followed by
other foods such as pickled herring, meat products, avocados, soy sauce, miso, chicken livers,
beef livers, and caviar. The presence of putrescine and cadaverine along with tyramine and
histamine in food has been found to be responsible for their toxic effect on human. Furthermore,
cadaverine, putrescine, spermine, and spermidine can form carcinogenic nitrosoamines by
reacting with nitrite. Brink et al. have reported that levels of histamine at more than 500 ppm are
toxic to human. The histamine in food at 8–40 mg can cause slight poisoning, and 1080 ppm of
tyramine is considered very harmful to adults. On the other hand, with intake of monoamine
oxidase inhibitor (MAOI) drugs, tyramine concentration at 100–250 ppm can cause
hypertension. It has been shown that phenyethylamine at dose of 3 mg can significantly produce
symptoms of migraine. Currently no data is available for the dose–response effects of putrescine
or cadaverine on human.
Alkaloids are naturally occurring chemical compounds containing basic nitrogen atoms.
The name derives from the word alkaline and was used to describe any nitrogen - containing
base. Alkaloids are produced by a large variety of organisms, including bacteria, fungi, plants,
and animals and are part of the group of natural products (also called secondary metabolites).
Many alkaloids have been used in medicine over the years and some are still prominent drugs
which have physiological effect on animals (Edeoga, H.O and Eriata, D.O, 2001; Sibi G et al.,
2014). Many alkaloids can be purified from crude extracts by acid - base extraction. Many
alkaloids are toxic to other organisms.
TYPES OF ALKALOIDS Alkaloids should be divided into 3 subgroups.
Proper Alkaloids Proper alkaloids are also known as true alkaloids. These alkaloids are
basic. They are nitrogen part of a heterocyclic ring system. These are chemically complex. Some
are physiologically active. They have limited distributions in the plant kingdom. Derived
biosynthetically from amino acids, especially the cyclic amino acids: Phe, Tyr, Try, His.
Proto Alkaloids Nitrogen atom is outside the ring system. These are physiologically
active.
Pseudo alkaloids Nitrogen containing compounds (Physiologically active) not derived
from amino acids. The purine ring is gradually elaborated by piecing together small components
from primary metabolism.
ALKALOIDS CLASSES Tropane alkaloids, purine alkaloids, pyrolizidine
alkaloids,terpenoidindole alkaloids, benzylisoquinoline alkaloids and other alkaloids:
quinolizine, steroidal glycol alkaloids.
TROPANE ALKALOIDS
Atropine It is a tropane alkaloid extracted from deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna),
jimsonweed (Daturastramonium), mandrake (Mandragoraofficinarum) and other plants of the
family Solanaceae. It is a secondary metabolite of these plants and serves as a drug with a wide
variety of effects. Solanaceae plants, particularly Daturastramonium L., produce a range of
biologically active alkaloids, including tropane alkaloids (AlirezaIranbakhsh et al., 2006). It is a
competitive antagonist for the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor. It is classified as an anti
cholinergic drug. Atropine is a core medicine in the World Health Organization's "Essential
Drugs List", which is a list of minimum medical needs for a basic health care system. The
racemic mixture of (-)-hyoscyamine and (+)- hyoscyamine is called atropine (EFSA Journal,
2013).
Occurrence Atropine is found in many members of the Solanaceae family (Ratsch C,
(2007); BorbalaBoros et al., 2010; GrzegorzGrynkiewicz and Maria Gadzikowska, 2008). The
most commonly found sources are Atropa belladonna,Daturainoxia, D. metel, and D.
stramonium. Other sources include members of theBrugmansia and Hyoscyamus genera. The
Nicotiana genus (including the tobacco plant, N. tabacum) is also found in the Solanaceae
family, but these plants do not contain atropine or other tropane alkaloids. The plant Latua has
accumaulates a number of tropanealkaloids, mainly scopolamine and atropine (Silva and
Mancinelli, 1959; Bodendorf and Kummer, 1962; Plowman et al., 1971; Orlando Munoz and
John F. Casale, 2003). Solanaceae - nightshade or potato family (Griffin and Lin, 2000; EFSA
journal, 2008). Convolvulaceae include the important food plant Ipomoea batatas (sweet potato)
(Massal and Barrau, 1956) and furthermore I. aquatica (water spinach) (Austin, 2007), while an
additional number of species have been reported as being used as “famine foods” (Freedman,
2012).
Uses Ophthalmic use Topical atropine is used as a cycloplegic, to temporarily paralyzethe
accommodation reflex, and as a mydriatic, to dilate the pupils.Atropine degrades slowly,
typically wearing off in 7 to 14 days, so it is generally used as a therapeutic mydriatic. Atropine
induces mydriasis by blocking contraction of the circularpupillary sphincter muscle, which is
normally stimulated byacetylcholine release, thereby allowing the radial pupillary dilatormuscle
to contract and dilate the pupil. Resuscitation Injections of atropine are used in the treatment of
bradycardia (anextremely low heart rate), asystole and pulseless electrical activity(PEA) in
cardiac arrest. This works because the main action of thevagus nerve of the parasympathetic
system on the heart is to decreaseheart rate.Atropine is also useful in treating seconddegree heart
block. Secretions and broncho constriction Atropine action on the parasympathetic nervous
system inhibitssalivary, sweat, and mucus glands. This can be useful in treatinghyperhidrosis,
and can prevent the death rattle of dying patients. Treatment for organophosphate poisoning
Atropine is not an actual antidote for organophosphate poisoning.However, by blocking the
action of acetylcholine at muscarinicreceptors, atropine also serves as a treatment for poisoning
by organophosphate insecticides and nerve gases. Atropine is given as a treatment for SLUDGE
(Salivation, Lacrimation, Urination, Diaphoresis, Gastrointestinal motility, Emesis) symptoms
caused by organophosphate poisoning. Optical penalization In refractive and accommodative
amblyopia, when occlusion is notappropriate sometimes atropine is given to induce blur in the
good eye.
Adverse effects and Overdose Adverse reactions to atropine include ventricular
fibrillation, supra ventricular or ventricular tachycardia, dizziness, nausea, blurred vision, loss of
balance, dilated pupils, photophobia, and, possibly, notably in the elderly, extreme confusion,
extreme dissociative hallucinations, and excitation (Bruneton J, 1999; Van Wyk B-E et al., 1997;
Van Wyk B-E et al., 2002; Van Wyk B-E, Gericke N, 2000). These latter effects are because
atropine is able to cross the blood – brain barrier. In overdoses, atropine is poisonous. Atropine is
sometimes added to other potentially addictive drugs, particularly anti-diarrhea opioid drugs.
Although atropine treats bradycardia (slow heart rate) in emergency settings, it can cause
paradoxical heart rate slowing when given at very low doses.
Cocaine It (benzoyl methyl ecgonine) is a crystalline tropane alkaloid that is obtained
from the leaves of the coca plant. The name comes from “coca” in addition to the alkaloid suffixine, forming cocaine. It is a stimulant of the central nervous system and an appetite
suppressant.Its possession, cultivation, and distribution are illegal for non-medicinal and nongovernment sanctioned purposes in virtually all parts of the world. The cocaine alkaloid was first
isolated by the German chemist Friedrich Gaedcke in 1855. Gaedcke named the alkaloid
"erythroxyline", and published a description in the journal Archiv der Pharmazie. Forms of
cocaine Cocaine is available in two primary forms. They are cocaine hydrochloride and cocaine
alkaloid. Both are extracted from the Central and South American coca plant. Cocaine
hydrochloride is an odourless white powder. It is usually snorted (intranasal use) or injected
(intravenous [IV] Use). Cocaine alkaloid is not water soluble. It is made into freebase or crack
and is smoked, resulting in a faster, more intense high than injecting or snorting(Gold, M.S,
1984; Khalsa, M.E et al., 1992; Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 2000;
NIDA Capsules, 1986).
Occurrence For over a thousand years South American indigenous peopleshave chewed
the coca leaf (Erythroxylon coca), a plant that containsvital nutrients as well as numerous
alkaloids, including cocaine. There is also evidence that these cultures used a mixtureof coca
leaves and saliva as an anesthetic for the performance oftrepanation. Coca leaves are somewhat
similar in appearance to Laurusnobilis leaves. Different Erythroxylon species produce leaves
varying in size and appearance. They are containing cocaine (De Jong, 1906; Youssefi, Cooks
and McLauglin, 1979; Evans, 1981; Rivier, 1981; plowman and Rivier, 1983; Emanuel L.
Johnson and Stephen D, 1994; Deborah Pacini and Christine Franquemont, 1985). Chocolates
also contain small amounts of cocaine, which are made from cocoa powder. The TA Cocaine
was found in very small amounts in the original Coca-Cola formula, but was not the main
concern of the USDA at the time. Caffeine was considered to be the major problem with the
drink. Coca paste This is off-white, creamy or beige-coloured powder; it is rarely fine, often
contains aggregates and is generally damp. Unless the aggregates are crystalline (which is rare)
they usually break down under slight pressure. It has a characteristic odour. “Crack” cocaine A
flaky, hard material obtained by adding ammonia or sodium bicarbonate (bakingsoda) and water
to cocaine hydrochloride and heating the resulting precipitatedpowder(Vienna, 2012). 2.2.2
Effects and Health issues: Health problems resulting from cocaine use can lead to severe mental,
physical and social problems. Acute Cocaine is a potent central nervous system stimulant. Its
effectscan last from 20 minutes to several hours, depending upon the dosageof cocaine taken,
purity, and method of administration.The initial signs of stimulation are hyperactivity,
restlessness,increased blood pressure, increased heart rate and euphoria (Washton, A.M, 1989).
Theeuphoria is sometimes followed by feelings of discomfort anddepression and a craving to
experience the drug again. Side effects can include twitching,paranoia, and impotence, which
usually increase with frequent usage. With excessive or prolonged use, the drug can cause
itching, tachycardia, hallucinations, and paranoid delusions. Overdoses cause tachyarrhythmias
and a marked elevation of blood pressure. Cocaine may lead to death from respiratory failure,
stroke, cerebral hemorrhage, or heart - failure. Further mechanisms occur in chronic cocaine use.
The "crash" is accompanied with muscle spasms throughout the body, also known as the
"jitters", muscle weakness, headaches, dizziness, and suicidal thoughts. Chronic Chronic cocaine
intake causes brain cells to adapt functionally to strong imbalances of transmitter levels in order
to compensate extremes. Thus, receptors disappear from the cell surface or reappear on it,
resulting more or less in an "off" or "working mode" respectively, or they change their
susceptibility for binding partners (ligands) mechanisms called down/upregulation. Physical side
effects from chronic smoking of cocaine include hemoptysis, bronchospasm, pruritus, fever,
diffuse alveolar infiltrates without effusions, pulmonary and systemic eosinophilia, chest pain,
lung trauma, sore throat, asthma, hoarse voice, dyspnea (shortness of breath), and an aching, flu like syndrome. Tooth enamel and lead to gingivitis: Chronic intranasal usage can degrade the
cartilage separating the nostrils (the septum nasi), leading eventually to its complete IJPCBS
2015, 5(4), 896-906 Ranjitha et al. ISSN: 2249-9504 899 disappearance. A common but untrue
belief is that the smoking of cocaine chemically breaks down tooth enamel and causes tooth
decay. Addiction Cocaine dependence (or addiction) is physical and psychologicaldependency
on the regular use of cocaine. It can result inphysiological damage, lethargy, psychosis,
depression, or apotentially fatal overdose.
Purine Alkaloids Purine alkaloids are secondary metabolites derived from purine
nucleotides (Zulak et al., 2006) that have been found in nearly 100 species in 13 orders of plant
kingdom (Ashihara and Crozier, 1999a).
Caffeine It is a bitter, white crystalline xanthine alkaloid that is a psychoactive stimulant
drug. Caffeine was discovered by a German chemist, Friedrich Ferdinand Runge, in 1819. He
coined the term kaffein, a chemical compound in coffee, which in English became caffeine.
Caffeine is also part of the chemical mixtures and insoluble complexes guaraninefound in
guarana, mateinefound in mate, and theinefound in non - herbal tea; all of which contain
additional alkaloids such as the cardiac stimulants theophylline and theobromine, and often other
chemicals such as polyphenols which can form insoluble complexes with caffeine.
Occurrence Caffeine is found in many plant species, where it acts as a naturalpesticide,
with high caffeine levels being reported in seedlings thatare still developing foliages, but are
lacking mechanical protection;caffeine paralyzes and kills certain insects feeding upon the
plant.High caffeine levels have also been found in the surrounding soil ofcoffee bean seedlings.
Purine nucleotides are synthesized by de novo and salvage pathways (Ashihara and Crozier,
1999a; Stasolla et al., 2003; Zrenner et al., 2006). Caffeine is found in varying quantities in the
beans, leaves, and fruit of some plants, where it acts as a natural pesticide that paralyzes and kills
certain insects feeding on the plants. Other sources include yerba mate, guarana berries, and the
Yaupon Holly. The most commonly known sources of caffeine are coffee, cocoa beans, kola nuts
and tea leaves. (Barone and Roberts, 1996; Frary et al., 2005).Coffee plants contain two different
kinds of alkaloid delivered from nucleotides. One type is purine alkaloids, such as caffeine and
theobromine (Hiroshi Ashihara, 2006). Chocolate derived from cocoa contains a small amount of
caffeine. Caffeine is the most common purine alkaloid, but in a few plant species including cacao
and unique Chinese tea plants, the main purine alkaloid is theobromine or methyluric acid
(Ashihara and Suzuki, 2004). Tea is another common source of caffeine. Tea leaves contain 25% caffeine (Takeda, 1994;Ashihara et al., 1995). Although tea contains more caffeine than
coffee, a typical serving contains much less, as tea is normally brewed much weaker. Besides
strength of the brew, growing conditions, processing techniques and other variables also affect
caffeine content (H. Ashihara et al., 2008). Caffeine is added to soft drink as flavouring agent
(Drewnowski, 2001). Caffeine is also a common ingredient of soft drinks such as cola, originally
prepared from kola nuts. Soft drinks typically contain about 10 to 50 milligrams of caffeine per
serving. In recent years various manufacturers have begun putting caffeine into shower products
such as shampoo and soap, claiming that caffeine can be absorbed through the skin.
Uses Caffeine is metabolized in the liver into three primary metabolites: paraxanthine (84
%), theobromine (12 %), and theophylline (4 %). Paraxanthine: Has the effect of increasing
lipolysis, leading to elevated glycerol and free fatty acid levels in the blood plasma.
Theobromine: Dilates blood vessels and increases urine volume. Theobromine is also the
principal alkaloid in cocoa, and therefore chocolate. Theophylline: Relaxes smooth muscles of
the bronchi, and is used to treat asthma. The therapeutic dose of theophylline, however, is many
times greater than the levels attained from caffeine metabolism (Hiroshi Ashihara et al., 1997).
The precise amount of caffeine necessary to produce effects varies from person to person
depending on body size and degree of tolerance to caffeine. It takes less than an hour for caffeine
to begin affecting the body and a mild dose wears off in three to four hours. Consumption of
caffeine does not eliminate the need for sleep (Hicks et al., 1983; Smith, 2002); it only
temporarily reduces the sensation of being tired throughout the day. In general, 25 to 50
milligrams of caffeine is sufficient for most people to report increased alertness and arousal as
well as subjectively lower levels of fatigue (Rogers et al., 1989; Johnsonet al., 1990, 1991;
Nicholson et al., 1990; Zwyghuizen-Doorenbos et al.,1990). IJPCBS 2015, 5(4), 896-906
Ranjitha et al. ISSN: 2249-9504 900 With these effects, caffeine is an ergogenic, increasing a
person's capability for mental or physical labour. Caffeine citrate has proven to be of short and
long term benefit in treating the breathing disorders of apnea of prematurity and
bronchopulmonary dysplasia in premature infants.
Overuse and Effects In large amounts, and especially over extended periods of time,
caffeine can lead to a condition known as caffeinism. Caffeinism usually combines caffeine
dependency with a wide range of unpleasant physical and mental conditions including
nervousness, irritability, anxiety, tremulousness, and muscle twitching (hyperreflexia), insomnia,
headaches, respiratory alkalosis, and heart palpitations (Nawrot, P et al., 2003). Caffeine
intoxication An acute overdose of caffeine, usually in excess of about 300 milligrams, dependent
on body weight and level of caffeine tolerance,can result in a state of central nervous system
overstimulation calledcaffeine intoxication or "caffeine jitters". The symptoms of caffeine
intoxication are not unlike overdoses of other stimulants. It may include restlessness,
nervousness, and excitement, insomnia, flushing of the face, increased urination, gastrointestinal
disturbance, muscle twitching, a rambling flow of thought and speech, irritability, irregular or
rapid heartbeat, and psychomotor agitation. In cases of extreme overdose, death can result.
Anxiety and sleep disorders Two infrequently diagnosed caffeine-induced disorders that are
recognized by the American Psychological Association (APA) are caffeineinduced sleep
disorder and caffeine-induced anxiety disorder, which can result from longterm excessive
caffeine intake above 300mg (Lieberman, 1992). Effects on memory and learning An array of
studies found that caffeine could have nootropic effects, inducing certain changes in memory and
learning. However, the tests performed contradict one another and the results have proven
inconsistent and inconclusive. Effects on the heart Caffeine binds to receptors on the surface of
heart muscle cellswhich leads to an increase in the level of cAMP inside the cells (by blocking
the enzyme that degrades cAMP), mimicking the effects of epinephrine (which binds to
receptors on the cell that activate cAMP production). cAMP acts as a " second messenger ," and
activates a large number of protein kinase A. Effects on children It is a common myth that
caffeine causes stunted growth inchildren. However, scientific studies have contradicted that
belief. Children experience the same effects from caffeine as adults. Energy drinks, most of
which containing high amounts of caffeine, have been banned in many schools throughout the
world. Caffeine intake during pregnancy Despite its widespread use and the conventional view
that it is asafe substance, a 2008 study suggested that pregnant women whoconsume 200
milligrams or more of caffeine per day have about twicethe miscarriage risk as women who
consume none (David Schardt, 2008). However, another2008 study found no correlation
between miscarriage and caffeineconsumption.
Pyrolizidine alkaloids Pyrolizidine alkaloids are secondary metabolites that are produced
by certain plants. Some plant species produce these substances in order to ward off herbivores
(Christina Kastl, 2013). There are more than 660 different pyrolizidine alkaloids which are found
in over 6,000 plant species (P. P. Fu et al., 2010) that correspond approximately to 3% of the
world’s flowering plants and represent a convergent trait in the plant kingdom (Langel, D et al.,
2011). PAs are largely on account of their biological activities, which include acute hepatotoxic
(Mattocks, 1986; Schoental,R,1968), mutagenic (Hirono et al., 1979), carcinogenic (Hirono et
al., 1978), teratogenic (Green and Christie, 1961), anticancer properties (Kovach et al., 1979)
and neuroactive properties (Schmeller et al., 1997). Plants and some insects which sequester PAs
from their food plants constitute the only natural source of this group of alkaloids that cause
toxic reactions in man and animals (KaleabAsres et al., 2004). The pyrrolizidine alkaloidcontaining plants are mostly members of the composite plants (asteraceae), forget-menot or
borage families (boraginaceae) as well as the legume family (fabaceae). Amongst plants
containing pyrrolizidine alkaloids native in Germany tansy ragwort, common groundsel and
viper’s bugloss were found as examples. Chemically speaking, pyrrolizidine alkaloids are esters
composed of 1- hydroxymethylpyrrolizidin (necine base) and aliphatic mono or dicarbon acids
(necine acids) (BfR FAQ, 2014). IJPCBS 2015, 5(4), 896-906 Ranjitha et al. ISSN: 2249-9504
901
Occurrence Some 13 families of the flowering plants contain PAs (Furuya et al, 1987).
Only 6 of these families contain hepatotoxic PAs (Anon, 1988) but they represent some 3% of all
the species of flowering plants (Culvenor, 1980). The principal families involved are the
Asteraceae (Compositae), Boraginaceae (MitraMehrabani et al., 2006) and Leguminaceae
(Fabaceae), while the main genera are Senecio (Asteraceae) (Rosa Tundisa, 2007), Crotalaria
(Leguminaceae) Heliotroprium, Trichodesma and Symphytum (Boraginaceae). In Australia
Echiumplantagineum (Boraginaceae) is also an important PAcontaining species. All three
families are well represented in Australia and are causes of poisoning in grazing domestic
livestock in all parts of the country (Seawright, 1989). Several Crotalaria spp. cause poisoning in
cattle and horses in northern Australia while Heliotropiumspp, Echiumplantaginium and various
Senecio spp. are responsible for toxicity in sheep, cattle and horses in southern Australia
(Seaman & Walker, 1985). Pigs (Hooper &Scanlan, 1977; Jones et al., 1981) and poultry (Ross
& Tucker, 1977) have also become poisoned due to consumption of prepared feeds contaminated
with the seeds of Heliotropiumeuropaeum and Crotalaria retusa respectively (Australia New
Zealand Food Authority, 2001). T. farfara species containing PAs belongs to the oldest herbs in
traditional medicine, mainly used as a cough suppressant as well as for treating obstructive lung
diseases: asthma, bronchitis, and emphysema (ArturAdamczak et al., 2013). It is possible that
PA enter food via plant-based food components. PA has been detected, for example, in herbal
teas, cereals, herbs, salads, leafy vegetables and honeys. Cases of elevated contamination in
wheat are known to have occurred in Afghanistan. This contamination had been caused by a
strong proliferation of plants of the heliotropium genus in wheat fields. In Germany, there have
been incidents of contamination of salads with ragwort and groundsel containing pyrrolizidine
alkaloids. As regards PA contamination of honeys, this can, among other plants, be attributed to
Echium, Senecio and Borago species. Their pyrrolizidine alkaloid-containing pollen is used by
bees to make honey. Raw honeys from certain countries in Central and South America show
higher PA contents compared to raw honeys from some European countries. Humans could also
ingest PA when such substances get into agricultural farm animals along the food chain, i.e. from
contaminated feed into farm animals and from there into animal based foods such as milk, eggs
and meat. Based on the current state of knowledge, there are no indications to suggest that such
animal-based foods contain PA in concentrations that would pose a health risk to consumers.
Biological Activity Antimicrobial Activity The growth of bacterial species, mostly
human pathogens such as E. coli, S. pneumoniae, Bacillus subtilis, B. anthracis and
Staphylococcus aureus were inhibited by different pure PAs and PA extracts (El-Shazly et al.,
1999; Reina, M., et al., 1995) were tested for their antimicrobial activity against 10 strains of
bacteria and 1 strain of fungi by broth microdilution and agar diffusion methods. Biological
Importance Toxicity of 1,2-unsaturated PAs as hepatotoxic, pulmotoxic, hemolytic, antimitotic,
teratogenic, mutagenic and carcinogenic natural products for humans and livestock. The
potential PA contamination of food and feeding stuff has attracted recurrent attention. It is
evident, that humans should not ingest food or herbal teas that contain PAs. However, some
saturated PAs have interesting pharmacological and biological effects, e.g., spasmolytic,
antihistaminic, anti-HIV and antiviral activities and as glucosidase inhibitor (Garcia-Moreno et
al., 2004; Assem ElShazly and Michael Wink, 2014).
Toxicity The first recorded example of human disease caused by PA-containing plants
was that reported in 1920 in South Africa where multiple cases of cirrhosis occurred following
consumption of bread made from flour contaminated mainly with the plant Senecioburchellii
(Willmot& Robertson, 1920). PA poisoning of humans can be described by three dose-related
levels: acute, sub-acute and chronic (IPCS, 1989; Prakash AR et al., 1999). These levels can be
progressive resulting in irreversible chronic toxic effects. On account of the low toxicity of the
PAs themselves, acute poisoning has been reported only in very rare cases; it occurs only in
infants and neonates due to their higher susceptibility to a PA poisoning. It is characterised by
haemorrhagic necrosis, hepatomegaly and ascites; death is caused by liver failure. Sub-acute
levels are characterised by hepatomegaly and recurrent ascites; endothelial proliferation and
medial hypertrophy leading to an occlusion of hepatic veins, resulting in the so- IJPCBS 2015,
5(4), 896-906 Ranjitha et al. ISSN: 2249-9504 902 called veno-occlusive disease (VOD) which
can be seen as a characteristic histological sign for PA poisoning (Peterson JE, 1983; Huxtable
RJ, 1989). Chronic effects: The typical toxic effects of PA affect the liver and in some case the
lungs. Animal experiments have demonstrated that certain pyrrolizidine alkaloids are genotoxic
carcinogens (Helmut Wiedenfeld, 2011). The classical symptoms and signs of human PA
toxicosis are abdominal pain and rapidly developing ascites. Lassitude, anorexia, nausea,
vomiting, diarrhoea, oedema, emaciation, hepatomegaly, splenomegaly and mild jaundice also
occur (Australia New Zealand Food Authority, 2001). In high dosage, pyrrolizidine alkaloids
(PA) can lead to fatal liver failure. The clinical picture of PA poisoning in animals is known as
Seneciosis and is usually caused by groundsel found in grazing lands. For example, beef cattle
that have eaten Alpine ragwort with hey and silage show increased rates of liver cirrhosis. Cases
of intoxication after uptake of high doses of PA have also been reported for humans. Due to the
ingestion of PA, she suffered serious hepatic dysfunction. Similarly, people in Pakistan, India
and Afghanistan fall ill after they had eaten wheat contaminated with seeds from Heliotropium
or Crotalaria species. In Jamaica, cases of poisoning have occurred through socalled bush teas
containing parts of the Crotalaria and ragwort plant. In order to minimise the potential health risk
for people consuming honey as well as herbal and other teas in high quantities and especially for
children, pregnant and breastfeeding women, efforts should be made to reduce the PA contents
of contaminated foods. This includes sufficient controls of batches of herbal teas and other types
of tea prior to marketing. In addition, food business operators should conduct research on the
cause of high PA contents. For example, a judicious selection of raw honeys which are used for
the manufacture of mixed finished products can contribute to a reduction of PA contents in
ready-to-eat honeys. Taken great care when cultivating and harvesting lettuces, vegetables and
herbs can also enhance food safety (BfR FAQ, 2014). CONCLUSION This alkaloids having
medicinal properties but they consume over dose they are leading to diseases like cancer, heart
diseases and etc. It is depend upon the types of alkaloids and their level of presence. Alkaloids
have six classes. Each class have different alkaloids and they having different characteristic.
Mostly some alkaloid has well for health. But some alkaloid has only risk for health. E.g.
cocaine has high effective for human health and it can lead breaks down tooth enamel and causes
tooth decay. Caffeine consumed high level leading to cancer and miscarriage for pregnant
women’s. In all countries have Food and Drug Adulteration Act. They have limitations for
alkaloid to safe consume food. Alkaloids are naturally occurring chemical compounds in foods.
So they are not prevented. They are consuming with limitations.
7 - LECTURE
PREVENTION OF ACCUMULATION OF CONTAMINANTS IN FOOD
PRODUCTS
Objective: To understand how to prevent the accumulation of contaminants in food
products through hygienic preparation, safe storage, and proper handling practices, thereby
minimizing the risk of foodborne illnesses.
Tasks:
1. Learn proper handwashing and hygiene practices before and during food preparation.
2. Understand how to prevent cross-contamination by using separate utensils, plates, and
chopping boards for raw and cooked foods.
3. Explore effective storage methods for raw and ready-to-eat foods to reduce bacterial
growth.
4. Learn safe shopping bag practices and handling of raw and ready-to-eat foods during
shopping.
5. Recognize the sources and risks of cross-contamination in both domestic and commercial
settings.
Preparing food hygienically
1.
wash hands before preparing food.
2.
make sure any surfaces you are using for food prep are clean.
3.
if possible, use different utensils, plates and chopping boards for raw and cooked
food.
4.
wash utensils, plates and chopping boards for raw and cooked food thoroughly
between tasks.
Storing food effectively

cover raw food, including meat, and keeping it separate from ready-to-eat food in
the fridge

store covered raw meat, poultry, fish and shellfish on the bottom shelf of your
fridge

use any dish that has a lip to prevent spillages from the raw foods

use different utensils, plates and chopping boards for raw and cooked food, if
possible
Using shopping bags safely

make sure you take enough shopping bags to pack raw and ready-to-eat food
separately

take extra bags to pack cleaning products and other household items separately
from food

label or colour code your bags to show what you intend to use them for

check your bags for spillages after every use. If there has been visible spillage,
soiling or damage, plastic bags for life should ideally be used for another purpose (where no
safety risk will occur e.g a bin liner) or replaced

consider using cotton/fabric bags for life as they can be put in the washing
machine and cleaned if they get dirty

replace old plastic bags

keep raw and ready to eat foods separate in your shopping trolley or basket
FSA Explains
Cross-contamination is what happens when bacteria or other microorganisms are
unintentionally transferred from one object to another. The most common example is the
transfer of bacteria between raw and cooked food.
This is thought to be the cause of most foodborne infections. For example, when
you’re preparing raw chicken, bacteria can spread to your chopping board, knife and hands
and could cause food poisoning.
Cross-contamination can also happen when bacteria is transferred in ways that are
less obvious. For example, via reusable shopping bags, or in the drips and splashes produced
if meat is washed which can contaminate other surfaces.
Control Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
Explain what cross-contamination is and give two examples from a domestic kitchen.
Why is it important to store raw meat on the bottom shelf of the fridge?
List three key hygiene practices that should be followed before preparing food.
How can shopping bags contribute to the spread of bacteria, and how can this be
prevented?
5. Describe two ways to prevent contamination when using utensils, chopping boards, and
plates for raw and cooked foods.
8 – LECTURE
FOOD ADDITIVES: CLASSIFICATION, REGULATION, CONTROL
Goal - To understand the role, classification, regulation, and safe use of food additives in
the food industry, as well as their technological, organoleptic, and nutritional functions.
Objectives
1.
2.
3.
4.
Explain the historical development and necessity of food additives.
Define food additives according to Codex and understand their main characteristics.
Classify food additives by their technological function and origin.
Describe the main functions of additives: stabilizers, inhibitors, organoleptic modifiers,
and improvers.
5. Understand the principles of safety, acceptable daily intake (ADI), and Good
Manufacturing Practice (GMP) in additive use.
6. Explain international regulation systems and labeling requirements for food additives.
Throughout history, mankind has needed to prolong the shelf life of food, modify its
organoleptic characteristics or stabilise its physical properties, with the aim of surviving periods
of shortage, drought or winters. In the past, the classification of additives was less common and
food consumption was seasonal, but with the development of agriculture and
livestock mankind began to manipulate food in order to preserve them better and transform them
into more durable and stable products.
The first techniques developed were based on physical treatments, which were sometimes
combined with chemical treatments. Some of these treatments are still currently used, for
example drying, salting, smoking and freezing, among others.
Food additives are one of the great technologies that have been developed in terms
of food preservation and transformation. Due to massive urbanisation and the rhythm of life in
the twentieth century, it has become necessary to use food additives to adapt products to current
needs. Without additives, many foods could not be manufactured or even consumed.
Today, additives are part of our daily lives, since virtually all beverages and processed
foods we consume contain any of these substances. However, the incorporation of additives into
the food industry’s products is a controversial issue due to both ignorance and concern on the
part of consumers. On one hand, there is ignorance in the classification of additives and their
types, and on the other there is concern about the possible impact of certain additives on human
ihealth.
It may interest you: Food additives used by industry
According to the Codex, international food standards proposed by FAO and approved
by WHO, a food additive is defined as “any substance which is not normally consumed as a
food, nor is it used as a basic food ingredient, having a nutritional value or not and whose
intentional addition to the food for technological purposes in its manufacturing, processing,
preparation, processing, packaging, packaging, transport or storage phases, results or can
reasonably be expected to result in itself or its by-products in a component of the food or an
element that affects its characteristics.”
Main characteristics of food additives
In the food industry, for a substance to be admitted as an additive and to be used, it must
overcome toxicological controls, be chemically characterised and demonstrate that its use
provides consumer benefits and / or technological benefits.
The 7 main functions of the additives are:

Ensure the safety and edibleness of the food.

Preserve or increase the nutritive value of the ingredients.

Increase stability or improve organoleptic properties.

Prolong the shelf life of the food and contribute to its conservation.

Make possible the availability of food out of season.

Facilitate the manufacturing processes of the products.

Provide food for groups of consumers with particular dietary needs.
Classification of food additives
The following classification of additives is based on criteria on their technological
functions. However, it is necessary to emphasize that there are other classifications based on the
origin (natural or synthetic) or the type of additive.
1. Stabilizers of physical characteristics

Emulsifiers: substances that allow the maintenance or formation of a
homogeneous mixture of two or more non-miscible phases. For example, water and oil.

Thickeners: macromolecules that preserve the textures of foods such as viscosity
or gelling effect. For example, adding E-406 (agar-agar) to a jam preserves for its texture.

Anti-caking agents: substance that prevents the formation of clumps or lumps that
affect product homogeneity. They are usually used in soups, sauces, juices or dairy products.

Acidity correctors: substances that control or alter the pH of food. Inadequate
control can lead to the proliferation of undesirable bacteria in the food which could suppose a
health risk.
2. Inhibitors of chemical and biological alterations

Antioxidants: they are additives that are added mainly in fatty ingredients to delay
or prevent the rancidity of foods due to the oxidation. There are two types of antioxidants on the
market: natural and synthetic.

Conservatives: substances that when added protect food against deterioration
caused by unwanted microorganisms. They are often used in food containing water, such as
bakery, pastries, dairy, beverages or meat products.
3. Modifiers of organoleptic characters

Colouring agents: substances used to modify or stabilise the colouring
characteristics of a food. Colour in food is an aspect that is associated with the quality of food
and is related to taste and smell. The use of dyes in food goes back to ancient civilizations; the
use of saffron or cochineal for colouring have a long tradition which continues to today.

Flavour enhancers: substances that enhance the taste and / or aroma of a food
without giving its own flavour. They are widely used in sauces and soups. Monosodium
glutamate is one of the most used in processed foods.

Sweeteners: these additives are used to provide sweet taste or to mimic flavours.
Its aim is that the flavour is the most similar to the common sugar and resist similar treatments in
which sugar is used. They are very important in products for diabetics or low calorie products.

Aromatic substances: are substances that provide a new aroma and / or correct the
aroma of food and beverages. It is possible to obtain them from extracts of vegetable origin.
4. Improvers and correctors

They are additives that are used in baking, wine making, or to regulate the
maturation of dairy products, such as cheese or meat products.
As mentioned above, there are natural and synthetic additives that are titrated according
to the ADI (acceptable daily intake) and based on available toxicological data. Each additive has
a maximum dietary level without demonstrable toxic effects and public administrations rely on
the ADI when legislating and establishing authorized quantities for the use of the additives.
The use of food additives seeks to improve the products that food manufacturers offer to
consumers. However, in many cases the consumer has a poor perception about the additives,
especially of the synthetic or artificial ones. Some believe that the food industry uses additives to
mask poor quality and to lower costs, but the truth is that the use of additives allows people to
eat healthy, tasty and safe food.
Although there is still a great deal of ignorance on the subject in the general population,
the market trend is towards the consumption of good quality food, using natural additives, easily
prepared and preserved, and without harmful effects on health.
The classification of food additives allows to synthesise and understand what type of
additives the manufacturer needs for each type of product. In addition, the regulations
concerning additives require that all food additives used in the product should appear on food
labels. In Europe, the E-number system is used, although labelling using the full name of the
additive, Tocopherols for example, a natural antioxidant used in the food industry can be labelled
using its E-306 number or as “Rich Extract in Tocopherols”.
The main bodies responsible for regulating additives are the Scientific Committee for
Food (SCF) at the European level and the FAO / WHO Committee of experts on food additives
(JECFA) at the international level. It is important to periodically review the official sources in
order to stay updated on the latest developments and changes regarding additives and the food
sector in general.
Food Additives Included in this Standard Only the food additives listed herein are
recognized as suitable for use in foods in conformance with the provisions of this Standard. Only
food additives that have been assigned an Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) or determined, on the
basis of other criteria, to be safe by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives
(JECFA) and an International Numbering System (INS) designation by Codex will be considered
for inclusion in this Standard. The use of additives in conformance with this Standard is
considered to be technologically justified.
Foods in Which Additives May Be Used This Standard sets forth the conditions under
which food additives may be used in all foods, whether or not they have previously been
standardized by Codex. The use of additives in foods standardized by Codex is subject to the
conditions of use established by the Codex commodity standards and this Standard. The General
Standard for Food Additives (GSFA) should be the single authoritative reference point for food
additives. Codex commodity committees have the responsibility and expertise to appraise and
justify the technological need for the use of additives in foods subject to a commodity standard.
The information given by the commodity committees may also be taken into account by the
Codex Committee on Food Additives (CCFA) when considering food additive provisions in
similar non-standardized foods. When a food is not covered by a commodity committee, CCFA
will appraise the technological need.
Foods in Which Additives May Not Be Used Food categories or individual food items in
which the use of food additives is not acceptable, or where use should be restricted, are defined
by this Standard.
Maximum Use Levels for Food Additives The primary objective of establishing
maximum use levels for food additives in various food groups is to ensure that the intake of an
additive from all its uses does not exceed its ADI. The food additives covered by this Standard
and their maximum use levels are based in part on the food additive provisions of previously
established Codex commodity standards, or upon the request of governments after subjecting the
requested maximum use levels to an appropriate method for verifying the compatibility of a
proposed maximum level with the ADI. Annex A of this Standard may be used as a first step in
this regard. The evaluation of actual food consumption data is also encouraged.
DEFINITIONS a) Food additive means any substance not normally consumed as a food
by itself and not normally used as a typical ingredient of the food, whether or not it has nutritive
value, the intentional addition of which to food for a technological (including organoleptic)
purpose in the manufacture, processing, preparation, treatment, packing, packaging, transport or
holding of such food results, or may be reasonably expected to result (directly or indirectly), in it
or its by-products becoming a component of or otherwise affecting the characteristics of such
foods. The term does not include contaminants or substances added to food for maintaining or
improving nutritional qualities.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOR THE USE OF FOOD ADDITIVES The use of food
additives in conformance with this Standard requires adherence to all the principles set forth in
Food Additive Safety
a) Only those food additives shall be endorsed and included in this Standard that, so far as
can be judged on the evidence presently available from JECFA, present no appreciable health
risk to consumers at the use levels proposed.
b) The inclusion of a food additive in this Standard shall have taken into account any
ADI, or equivalent safety assessment established for the additive by JECFA and its probable
daily intake from all food sources. Where the food additive is to be used in foods eaten by
special groups of consumers (e.g. diabetics, those on special medical diets, sick individuals on
formulated liquid diets), account shall be taken of the probable daily intake of the food additive
by those consumers.
c) The quantity of an additive added to food is at or below the maximum use level and is
the lowest level necessary to achieve the intended technical effect. The maximum use level may
be based on the application of the procedures of Annex A, the intake assessment of Codex
members or upon a request by the CCFA to JECFA for an independent evaluation of national
intake assessments.
Justification for the Use of Additives The use of food additives is justified only when
such use has an advantage, does not present an appreciable health risk to consumers, does not
mislead the consumer, and serves one or more of the technological functions set out by Codex
and the needs set out from (a) through (d) below, and only where these objectives cannot be
achieved by other means that are economically and technologically practicable:
a) To preserve the nutritional quality of the food; an intentional reduction in the
nutritional quality of a food would be justified in the circumstances dealt with in sub-paragraph
(b) and also in other circumstances where the food does not constitute a significant item in a
normal diet;
b) To provide necessary ingredients or constituents for foods manufactured for groups of
consumers having special dietary needs;
c) To enhance the keeping quality or stability of a food or to improve its organoleptic
properties, provided that this does not change the nature, substance or quality of the food so as to
deceive the consumer;
d) To provide aids in the manufacture, processing, preparation, treatment, packing,
transport or storage of food, provided that the additive is not used to disguise the effects of the
use of faulty raw materials or of undesirable (including unhygienic) practices or techniques
during the course of any of these activities.
Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) All food additives subject to the provisions of this
Standard shall be used under conditions of good manufacturing practice, which include the
following:
a) The quantity of the additive added to food shall be limited to the lowest possible level
necessary to accomplish its desired effect;
b) The quantity of the additive that becomes a component of food as a result of its use in
the manufacturing, processing or packaging of a food and which is not intended to accomplish
any physical, or other technical effect in the food itself, is reduced to the extent reasonably
possible; and,
c) The additive is of appropriate food grade quality and is prepared and handled in the
same way as a food ingredient.
Specifications for the Identity and Purity of Food Additives Food additives used in
accordance with this Standard should be of appropriate food grade quality and should at all times
conform with the applicable Specifications of Identity and Purity recommended by the Codex
Alimentarius Commission or, in the absence of such specifications, with appropriate
specifications developed by responsible national or international bodies. In terms of safety, food
grade quality is achieved by conformance of additives to their specifications as a whole (not
merely with individual criteria) and through their production, storage, transport, and handling in
accordance with GMP.
Control Questions
1. Explain the difference between natural and synthetic food additives and provide
examples.
2. What are the main technological functions of food additives? Give examples.
3. Describe the principle of Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) in the context of
additives.
4. How does the ADI influence regulations on food additive use?
5. Why is labeling of additives important, and what systems are used internationally (e.g.,
E-numbers)?
9 - LECTURE
BIOLOGICALLY ACTIVE ADDITIVES.
PLACE OF BIOLOGICALLY ACTIVE SUBSTANCES IN HUMAN NUTRITION.
TOXICOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT AND CLASSIFICATION.
Goal To understand the role, classification, and safety assessment of biologically active
additives (dietary supplements) in human nutrition and their preventive and restorative functions.
Objectives
1.
Define biologically active additives (BAAs) and their role in human
nutrition.
2.
Explain why dietary supplements are necessary in modern nutrition.
3.
Identify the main classes of BAAs: eubiotics, nutraceuticals, and
parapharmaceuticals.
4.
Describe the main physiological functions of BAAs: wellness, preventive,
restorative, protective, and preparatory.
5.
Understand the sources of BAAs and the importance of quality control and
absence of impurities.
6.
Explain the limitations of BAAs in disease treatment and their proper use
as supplements.
Biologically active additives (Dietary Supplements) - a special product that is used to
correct the structure of human nutrition and to prevent certain diseases. One of the most common
supplements are vitamin supplements. Their use is recommended in situation when the number
of vitamin in the body is insufficient.
That is why vitamin additives should be considered as an important products that require
a responsible attitude to the evaluation of their quality characteristics. First of all it concerns
safety hazard - risks.
The constantly deteriorating ecological situation also does not contribute to obtaining all
the necessary minerals, vitamins and biologically active substances when using various, even the
most advertised, food products. Therefore, the deficit of various nutrients has become
fashionable recently to replenish with the help of a variety of biologically active additives.
BAAs are concentrates of natural nutritional and biologically active substances derived
from food raw material of animal, marine and mineral origin, nutritional or medicinal plants, or
obtained by chemical synthesis (synthesized substances that are identical to natural analogs). The
body cannot synthesize these essential nutritional and biologically active substances, so we need
to include them into our diet every day. Otherwise they become a deficit which eventually
increases, the body is weakened and unable to withstand adverse environmental factors. As a
result the working capacity grows worth and aging process is enhanced. Prolonged deficiency of
these substances in the body can lead to serious diseases.
Biologically active additives are divided into several classes, depending on a number of
important factors. The main are three groups of dietary supplements, which are called eubiotics,
nutraceuticals and parapharmaceuticals, and are divided by their composition and percentage of
certain components. In this case, in more detail, biologically active additives are divided into
more classifications according to different variations and the nature of the application.
Modern dietary supplements can be considered as products, divided by the following, the
most important criteria:
• Nature of use;
• Application in specific situations;
• Sourcing sources;
• Effects on the body;
• Composition and ingredients.
It is worth considering that biologically active food additives are not medicinal products,
therefore they can be used to prevent or maintain good health. But to replace drugs with them,
and also to try to cure the disease yourself can not be categorically impossible.
More correctly will use BAA as an additive for every meal. This will help not only to
take the necessary supplements of the body correctly, but also to successfully rationalize their
nutrition. While the benefits of biologically active additives seem to have already been proved by
widespread application and feedback, criticism does not stop them. Indeed, BAAs have the
properties to favorably influence the human body as a whole, not allowing diseases to actively
develop or pass into chronic and sometimes incurable forms.
The main physiological functions, which have BAAs, are the following:
1. Wellness - sufficiently supporting the optimal functioning of the human body;
2. Preventive - for the prevention of a variety of diseases and assistance in adapting to the
environment;
3. Restorative - help restore the body after taking antibiotics and synthetic types of drugs;
4. Protective - help to mitigate the effects on the body of synthetic drugs; 5. Preparatory helps the body to prepare for long-term treatment and the intake of synthetic drugs.
Biologically active additives are substances of natural origin that promote health, prevent
diseases, normalize the balance of nutrients in the body, help the body fight infections and
accelerate the recovery process. To say more, many biologically active additives contain toning
agents that have a really positive effect, providing vitality,increasing performance, both mental
and physical, reducing stress and stimula ting the protective function of the body. Supplements
include vitamins, minerals, ami no acids, antioxidants, unsaturated fatty acids, fibers, plant
extracts and many other u seful components that purify our body of toxic substances, salts,
radionuclides and he avy metals, slow the aging process and stimulate the immune system.
In the era of fast food and "artificial" food a person does not get a tenth of the useful
substances that our grandparents provided themselves with food. Therefore, it is not surprising
that the relevance of biologically active additives increases every year. These bioactive
substances can give the body everything you need. But under one condition.
The BAA itself is a quality preparation containing extracts of all the declared
components, without impurities and substitutes, then it actually will bring benefits to the person,
not harm.
Control Questions
1. Explain the difference between eubiotics, nutraceuticals, and parapharmaceuticals.
2. Describe the preventive and restorative functions of biologically active additives.
3. Why is it important to ensure that a BAA contains all declared components without
impurities?
4. Discuss why BAAs cannot replace medications in disease treatment.
5. List the main sources of biologically active substances included in dietary supplements.
10 – LECTURE
NUTRICEUTICALS, PARAMECEUTICALS. EBIOTICS. ANTIVITAMINS
Goal To understand the concepts of nutraceuticals, parameceuticals, eubiotics, vitamins,
provitamins, and antivitamins, their differences from pharmaceuticals, their role in human health,
and their safety considerations.
Objectives
1. Define nutraceuticals, parameceuticals, eubiotics, and dietary supplements.
2. Explain the differences between nutraceuticals, pharmaceuticals, dietary supplements,
and functional foods.
3. Identify examples of nutraceuticals and their applications.
4. Understand when to use nutraceuticals versus pharmaceuticals.
5. Explain the terms vitamin, provitamin, and antivitamin with examples.
6. Discuss safety, regulation, and clinical trial differences between nutraceuticals and
pharmaceuticals.
7. Recognize the importance of quality, dosage, and responsible use of these substances.
Nutraceutical products can be considered non-specific biological therapies used to promote
general well-being, control symptoms, and prevent malignant processes. The term
“nutraceutical” combines the two words of “nutrient,” which is a nourishing food component,
and “pharmaceutical,” which is a medical drug.
Role of Nutraceuticals in Food Industry. Nutraceuticals is a substance that may be
considered a food or part of a food which provides health benefits, encompassing prevention and
treatment of disease. The term Nutraceuticals was derived from 'Nutrition' (food
component/source) and 'Pharmaceuticals' (a medical drug).
Nutraceuticals have been classified based on their application into traditional, nontraditional, fortified, recombinant, phytochemical, herbal, functional foods, dietary supplements,
probiotics and prebiotics.
Examples of nutraceuticals include soy protein, garlic, green tea, and many others.
Therefore, the main difference between nutraceuticals vs. pharmaceutical supplements is that the
former are nutritionally-rich whole foods while the latter are pills and tablets that contain an
isolated nutrient.
What’s the difference between dietary supplements and nutraceuticals?
First, let’s understand the definitions of different terms used to describe products you can
find on your supermarket and pharmacy shelves.
Pharmaceutical medicines
Pharmaceuticals are drugs that have FDA approval and which you receive from primary care
doctors, specialty offices, and hospitals. They are manufactured in laboratories by
pharmaceutical companies and are designed to treat diseases or specific health issues. These
drugs undergo extensive clinical trials and have a lot of scientific data to support their safety and
efficacy. Examples of pharmaceutical medicine include prescription medications such as a pill to
treat high blood pressure or an over-the-counter (OTC) medicine like an antacid.
Dietary supplements
They are made from food but are available in a non-food format, so they look like drugs.
Dietary supplements contain isolated nutrients that have known medical benefits. For example,
vitamin C chewable tablets or calcium tablets are specific supplements.
Herbal products
These are products that come from plants. They can be in the form of food supplements or
medicinal remedies. A herbal product is considered a medicinal product if it claims to solve
health problems, i.e., treat or cure a disease. Examples include garlic, sage, and ginseng.
Functional foods
These are foods that look like naturally occurring foods but are prepared scientifically and
fortified to offer greater nutritional value. For example, breakfast cereal fortified with vitamin
D or orange juice fortified with vitamin C.
Nutraceuticals
This is a term that comes from combining the words nutrition and pharmaceutical. A
nutraceutical is a nutrient-rich dietary substance made from whole food or parts of food sources.
These foods are known to provide health benefits, including preventing and treating serious
diseases. Examples of nutraceuticals include soy protein, garlic, green tea, and many others.
Therefore, the main difference between nutraceuticals vs. pharmaceutical supplements is
that the former are nutritionally-rich whole foods while the latter are pills and tablets that contain
an isolated nutrient.
When to use a nutraceutical vs. pharmaceutical for health benefits?
Most people will go to a doctor’s office or a hospital at some point. If you are in immediate
danger, doctors will make important health decisions and likely use pharmaceutical medicines to
treat you. These medicines help to accomplish specific goals, such as decreasing inflammation.
The goal is to improve health and possibly even save your life.
If you have a chronic condition, such as high cholesterol or high blood pressure, your doctor
may prescribe a pharmaceutical medicine for treatment. Doctors tend to prescribe
pharmaceuticals because they are trained to evaluate your body systems for possible diseases and
offer specific solutions.
Pharmaceuticals are frequently used to treat existing problems rather than prevent future
problems. However, doctors do sometimes recommend specific supplements and always
recommend healthy lifestyle changes as preventive measures.
Wellness clinics and wellness professionals fill the gaps in modern medicine by helping you
find alternatives to pharmaceuticals. For example, if you suffer from physical pain or low energy
level, they may prescribe nutraceuticals to bring your body back into balance. There is no
guarantee that a single nutraceutical, dietary supplement, or functional food will solve a specific
health issue, but they may help to improve overall health.
Clinical trials and safety of nutraceuticals vs. pharmaceuticals
One of the biggest concerns about nutraceuticals is their safety profile. As mentioned,
pharmaceuticals undergo years of drug development and clinical trials before they receive FDA
approval for clinical use. The effectiveness, side effects, and other drug-like reactions are studied
during these trials in detail. As a result, there is usually a large amount of scientific data available
about the safety of pharmaceuticals.
Nutraceuticals, on the other hand, are not regulated by the FDA. Because they are made
from whole foods, they cannot be patented. For this reason, manufacturers do not want to spend
money on researching nutraceuticals. Consequently, there is a lack of safety data for
nutraceuticals. That said, nutraceuticals are natural substances that humans have consumed for
thousands of years, so there is an inherent level of safety in their use.
Vitamin, Provitamin, Antivitamin are often confusing terms. So, here, we try to explain
these (Vitamin, Provitamin, Antivitamin) terms very easily.
Vitamin, Provitamin, Antivitamin: What the meaning of these terms?
Vitamin
Vitamins are organic compounds which are not synthesized within the body except vitamin
D, they are found in minute’s amount in natural foodstuffs, or sometimes they produced
synthetically. They help in the maintenance of metabolic functions. Thus, the deficiency of a
particular vitamin causes specific diseases which can only cure by the intake of that vitamin.
The term ‘Vitamin’ comes from the Latin word ‘vita’ (life) and English word ‘amine’. In
1912, Funk found that there is some compound in the food which
prevents beriberi, scurvy, pellagra, rickets etc. He notices that all of these compounds contain
nitrogen. Thus, he calls such compounds as “vitamine” (vita +amine). But later, it was found
that all such other compounds do not contain nitrogen and therefore the term “vitamine” was
modified to ‘vitamin’.
For example, Vitamin A, B complex, C, D,E,K, and vitamin P etc.
Provitamin
Provitamins are biologically inactive compounds which are quite similar to the vitamin in
structure and converted easily into active vitamins in vivo.
For example of provitamin
 β-carotene is provitamin for vitamin A,
 Ergosterol is provitamin for the vitamin D2
Antivitamin
Antivitamin is a chemical compound, similar in chemical structure to a vitamin, which may
physically replace the vitamin in some biological system, rendering the system biologically
inactive. They act by blocking the formation of some enzyme and co-enzyme.
Moreover, they are useful in vitamin research. because they use to produce vitamin
deficiencies in an animal without feeding them a vitamin-free diet.
For an example of antivitamin
 ulphanilamides are antivitamins for p-amino benzoic acid.
In conclusion, this article about “Vitamin, Provitamin, Antivitamin” describe precisely. Are
these terms (Vitamin, Provitamin, Antivitamin) clear now? If any confusion about Vitamin,
Provitamin, Antivitamin please leave a comment below.
Control Questions
1. Explain the difference between nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals.
2. Describe the function of provitamins and give examples.
3. What are antivitamins and how are they used in research?
4. When is it appropriate to use nutraceuticals versus pharmaceutical medicines?
5. List examples of functional foods and their health benefits.
11 – LECTURE
AIR AND WATER, SOIL POLLUTION.
METAL POLLUTION. TECHNOLOGY OF REPROCESSING FOOD RAW
MATERIALS CONTAINING HEAVY METALS.
Lecture Goal:
To develop an understanding of the interconnection between environmental pollution (air,
water, soil), food security, and the accumulation of heavy metals in food products, as well as to
introduce modern approaches to monitoring and mitigating pollution.
Lecture Objectives:
1. Explain the relationship between food production and air pollution:
Show how agricultural activities contribute to emissions of harmful substances;
Describe how air pollution (especially ground-level ozone) affects crop yields.
2. Describe the sources and consequences of water and soil pollution:
Examine the role of agriculture, industry, and urban waste;
Explain processes like eutrophication and anoxia in aquatic ecosystems.
3. Explore the impact of heavy metals on food safety:
Identify key toxic metals (e.g. mercury, lead, cadmium);
Explain how they enter the food chain and their effects on human health.
4. Present modern methods for pollution reduction and monitoring:
Outline international frameworks and conventions (e.g. UNECE programmes);
Introduce remediation techniques such as bioremediation and in situ stabilization.
5. Highlight the importance of sustainable agriculture and environmental protection in
ensuring global food security.
There is a two way relationship between food production and air pollution: food
production contributes significantly to air pollution; in turn, air pollution can impact food
production.
Agriculture is the single largest contributor of ammonia pollution as well as emitting
other nitrogen compounds. This affects soil quality and thus the very capacity of the soil to
sustain plant and animal productivity. In addition, the growing trade in agriculture products in
the last few decades has further increased the amount of pollution emitted from the
intensification process in producer countries. As this burden remains in the producer country, it
creates an imbalance and shifts the pollution problem from the importing countries to the
producer countries.
Conversely, there is increasing evidence that food production is also threatened by air
pollution. Ozone precursor emissions (nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds) are of
particular concern for global food security as these compounds react to form ground-level ozone.
This, in turn, penetrates into the plant structure and impairs its ability to develop. Ozone was
estimated to cause relative global crop losses for soy 6-16%, wheat 7-12% and maize 3-5%. At a
European level, a study in 2000 of the economic losses due to the impact of ozone on 23 crops
amounted to 6.7 billion Euros.
Some crops have been found to be more sensitive than others to ozone exposure, with
wheat and soybean being particularly sensitive; potato, rice and maize being moderately
sensitive; whilst barley has been found to be ozone resistant. Of concern is the fact that these
most sensitive crops are all staple foods for the majority of the world’s population.
Fisheries are also affected as nutrient run-off from land-based sources creates “dead
zones”, degrading habitat for fish – coral, sea grasses and mangroves – and endangering fish
species already vulnerable because of over-fishing and climate change. Yet, globally up to 20
percent of human protein consumption comes from aquatic animals and fisheries are a major
source of income and jobs for many communities around the world.
In a world faced with much unrest and uncertainty, global food security is an additional
driver of turmoil. Research on the impact of air pollution on food is relatively recent. Yet all
indications suggest that reducing air pollution benefits food production and thereby, global food
security.
What we do
The Convention sets targets for various air pollutants that have direct or indirect effects
on food production, such as for sulphur, nitrogen and emissions of ground-level ozone precursors
(nitrogen oxides and non-methane volatile organic compounds). In various bodies under the
Convention, several aspects of the complex interrelation between air pollution and food
production are being considered. For example, the International Cooperative Programme on
Effects of Air Pollution on Natural Vegetation and Crops is assessing the impacts of air
pollutants, particularly ground-level ozone, on crops.
The International Cooperative Programme on Assessment and Monitoring of the Effects
of Air Pollution on Rivers and Lakes assesses the degree and geographical extent of acidification
of surface waters, which might end up in the oceans and affect habitat for fish. In addition,
the Task Force on Reactive Nitrogen develops technical and scientific information and
encourages coordination of air pollution policies on nitrogen in the context of the nitrogen cycle.
Assisting countries in abating nitrogen emissions and managing nitrogen more sustainably,
which has direct impacts on soil quality and will help in promoting sustainable agriculture, the
work under the Task Force will help countries in achieving targets under Sustainable
Development Goal 2 on zero hunger. Similarly, the work under the Convention will also assist
countries in reducing marine pollution from land-based activities, particularly nutrient pollution,
which is a target under Sustainable Development Goal 14 on life below water.
Pollution is any change to an environmental variable away from the norm.
This can be chemical substances (such as gaseous by-products, agricultural waste, metal
particulates) or other forms of environmental change (such as noise, temperature increases, light
intensities. Plants and animals are often specifically adapted to their environmental surroundings,
so even small changes to their habitat can have severe implications for entire ecosystems.
Here are the types we are going to cover today, these are:
1.
Air pollution
2.
Water pollution
3.
Soil pollution
4.
Light pollution
5.
Plastic pollution
6.
Noise pollution
Air Pollution
Air pollution involves the release of gaseous molecules and particulates that alter the
composition of the atmosphere. Air pollution is can be directly harmful to humans, plants, and
animals, but also indirectly by contributing to the greenhouse effect.
The greenhouse effect involves greenhouse gases reflecting infrared radiation re-emitted
from the Earth's surface.
Causes of Air Pollution
Here are the causes of air pollution:

Polluting gases: dangerous gaseous by-products can be released from the burning
of fossil fuels, industrial processes, and the decomposition of waste. These gases include carbon
dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and sulphur dioxide.

Particulates: small particulates can be released as by-products from industrial
processes and from vehicles. These include soot, metal particulates, smoke, and aerosols.
When soot is visible in the air it often means carbon monoxide is present to. Carbon
monoxide is a very dangerous gas that causes respiratory problems
Effects of Air Pollution
Here are the resulting effects of air pollution:

Humans: nitrogen and sulphur oxides cause acid rain and erode
limestone buildings. Small particulates can cause respiratory problems, genetic
mutations, and cardiovascular diseases.

Environment: carbon dioxide will contribute to the greenhouse effect and cause
global warming, while acid rain from nitrogen and sulphur oxides will pollute waterways.
Athatls which have a strong absorbing effect will also contribute to warming.

Ecosystems: acid rain damages ecosystems, while consequences of global
warming like melting ice sheets, forest fires, and migration to cooler regions reduce habitats and
shift ecosystem dynamics.
Examples of ecosystem dynamics are predator-prey relationships, competition, and
symbioses.
Water Pollution
Water pollution concerns the runoff or diffusion of chemicals or wastes into oceans,
rivers, and other watercourses. Pollution of water is very dangerous because aquatic ecosystems
require certain conditions and will be affected by small changes in chemical concentrations.
Causes of Water Pollution
Let's have a look at the causes of water pollution:

Agricultural runoff: Agricultural practices have intensified in the last century,
along with using nitrogen and phosphorus fertilisers. Overuse of these fertilisers can lead to an
excess of nutrients in the soils, which then leach into nearby waterways when it rains.

Urban waste: industrial discharge and chemicals used in gardening may run off in
coastal areas, while littering near oceans and waterbodies is a problem.

Waste treatment: Sewage treatment plants and septic tanks are often designed to
remove dangerous and poisonous particulates rather than nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus,
so nutrient-rich water will often be discharged. Poorly managed waste can release all types of
contaminants too.

Acid rain: by-products from fossil fuel combustion and industrial processes like
nitrous oxide and sulfur dioxide cause acid rain, which can pour into oceans and other bodies of
water.
Agricultural fertilisers contain nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. When these nutrients
leach into nearby waters they can cause the rapid overgrowth of algae and eutrophication.
Effects of Water Pollution
Here are some of the alarming effects of water pollution:

Humans: Declining aquatic ecosystems will negatively affect the livelihoods of
people working in coastal areas, while toxins released from the breakdown of algal blooms will
dirty drinking

water.

Ecosystems: leaching nutrients from over-fertilised soils and urban waste can
cause eutrophication of nearby waters, which leads to anoxia. Poisonous toxins from algal
blooms will harm fish assemblages, and invasive species will be better adapted to high-nutrient
environments and drive out the original species, which may lead to a loss in ecosystem
functionality.

Environment: acid rain will devastate landscapes, while atmospheric deposition of
carbon dioxide will cause ocean acidification.
Eutrophication is the suffocation of oxygen in water. This can occur by an influx of
nutrients causing producer populations to increase rapidly and from 'algal blooms'. These algal
blooms will block sunlight from penetrating to the depths and decomposition of the algae (by
aerobic bacteria) will suck up any oxygen available.
Soil pollution is the contamination of soils by the addition of chemicals or physical
disruption. This type of pollution is a huge concern in agriculture, as pollution of soils can cause
infertility and inhibit crop growth.
Causes of Soil Pollution
So what are the causes of soil pollution?

Agrochemicals: the overuse of artificial agrochemicals like fertilisers
and pesticides can make soils infertile and affect nearby aquatic ecosystems.

Physical disturbances: intensive agricultural practices disturb

Anoxia simply means the absence of oxygen. Aerobic organisms will be unable to
survive in these conditions.

soils and make them more vulnerable to contaminating chemicals.

Industrial discharge: inconsiderate disposal of industrial waste can contaminate
soils with poisonous chemicals like hydrocarbons, solvents, and metal particulates. Leaching
from landfills is a major threat to soil health.
Percolation of contaminated waters is the process by which chemicals pollute soils.
Effects of Soil Pollution
Here are the effects of soil pollution:

Humans: agricultural industries are heavily impacted by soil pollution.
Polluted soils will become unhealthy and sometimes even infertile, meaning crop growth and
yield is limited. Polluted soils can contaminate grazing pastures and poison livestock. These
impacts threaten global food security and the livelihoods of many agricultural workers.

Environment: polluted soils will be unable to support as large producer
populations as non-polluted ones, so less carbon dioxide will be taken up by photosynthesis and
more will stay in the atmosphere and contribute to the greenhouse effect.

Ecosystems: the leaching of polluted soils will cause eutrophication of nearby
watercourses and consequent anoxia.

This will have ramifications for the entire aquatic ecosystem and can cause
drinking water to be tarnished by toxins released from the breakdown of algal blooms.
Other Types of Pollution
Let's go over some other types of pollution which can be just as problematic for humans
and the environment.
Noise Pollution
Noise pollution is the increase in amount of noise in an area away from the norm. This
can stem from a variety of things and can be extremely annoying for people and stressful for
animals. Booming speakers, revving vehicles, and heavy machinery all make huge amounts of
noise. Elderly people will be particularly susceptible to ear damage and headaches, while nearby
civilians may struggle with sleep. Ecosystems can be affected by noise as well; a consistent new
source of noise can force certain species to migrate to quieter regions.
A hypotonic saline solution enhances osmosis into the cellular structure which
contributes significantly to the dilution and extraction of contaminants such as heavy metals. An
organic acid additive, such as 1 -glutamic, citric or ascorbic acid, is also used.
One way of stabilizing heavy metals consists of adding chemicals to the soil that cause
the formation of minerals that contain the heavy metals in a form that is not easily absorbed by
plants, animals, or people. This method is called in situ (in place) fixation or stablization.
Apart from the conventional methods following the principles of adsorption,
precipitation, coagulation, and various separation techniques, the advancements made in the
directions of biological heavy metal detoxification using microbes, plants, algae have been
critically analyzed to identify the specific utility
Metals such as arsenic, cadmium, lead and mercury are naturally occurring chemical
compounds. They can be present at various levels in the environment, e.g. soil, water and
atmosphere.
Heavy Metals in Foods

– Mercury (Hg). Mercury is considered to be a highly toxic heavy metal. ...

– Lead (Pb). ...

– Cadmium (Cd). ...

– Copper (Cu). ...

– Chromium (Cr). ...

– Nickel (Ni). ...

– Selenium (Se). ...

– Aluminum and Arsenic.
Environmental pollution by metals with a high relative atomic mass, such as lead and
mercury. These metals derive from a number of sources, including lead in petrol, industrial
effluents, and leaching of metal ions from the soil into lakes and rivers by acid rain.
What causes heavy metals in food?
Because these metals occur naturally in the environment, or have infiltrated water, air and
soil because of pollution, they're hard to get rid of or even just minimize. When these
contaminants are in soil or water, they are absorbed into plants, which are then eaten by people
or by animals that enter the food supply.
12- Lecture.
Mycotoxins. Aflatoxins. Ochratoxins. Trichothecene mycotoxins. Patulin
Mycotoxins are naturally occurring toxins produced by certain moulds (fungi) and can be
found in food. The moulds grow on a variety of different crops and foodstuffs including cereals,
nuts, spices, dried fruits, apples and coffee beans, often under warm and humid conditions.
Some foods—such as grains, dried beans, dried fruits, and coffee—are susceptible to
fungus or mold that produce toxins known as mycotoxins. Only certain molds and fungi can
produce mycotoxins of concern. If you eat something containing high levels of those
mycotoxins, you can get sick. If you eat something from an animal that ate mycotoxins (such as
milk from a cow that ate mycotoxin-infected corn), you can get sick.
As an individual consumer, you generally cannot control the presence of mycotoxins in
your food. The fungi that produce mycotoxins generally grow during crop production and
storage – steps in the food supply chain that the FDA regulates and monitors to ensure the food
available for you to buy is not contaminated. The mycotoxins in human food that the FDA
currently focuses on are aflatoxins, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, patulin, and ochratoxin A.
Aflatoxins are mycotoxins produced by certain Aspergillus molds. Several types of
aflatoxins exist, but food contamination usually involves aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2 for crops
and M1 for milk.
Environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, and the amount of rain affect
whether mold will grow on food while it is growing, being harvested, and/or stored. The foods
most susceptible to aflatoxins include peanuts, corn, tree nuts such as Brazil nuts and pistachios,
and some small grains such as rice. Aflatoxin M1 is also found in milk of cows that eat aflatoxin
B1 contaminated crops.
Regularly eating foods with aflatoxins can increase your risk of liver cancer, cause birth
defects, and lead to kidney and immune system problems. Eating food containing a large amount
of aflatoxins at one time can lead to liver failure and even death.
Because of these health risks, the FDA has published action levels for aflatoxin and
regularly tests foods for the presence of aflatoxins. By using modern agricultural and processing
techniques, companies can reduce the possibility of contamination in their products.
Deoxynivalenol
Several Fusarium molds produce deoxynivalenol (DON), also known as vomitoxin. The
mold grows on wheat, corn, oats, barley, and other grains under normal weather conditions, but
especially in cool, wet conditions.
Processing wheat properly can reduce the level of DON in products like flour but will not
completely get rid of it. The FDA has published an advisory level for DON in finished wheat
products (like flour) that humans eat. When the amount of DON in a food product is at or lower
than the FDA advisory level, it does not appear to pose a danger to people who eat these food
products.
DON has been found in bread, noodles, beer, popcorn, and other foods. Eating foods with
high levels of DON can cause vomiting, nausea, and other symptoms.
Fumonisins
Certain strains of the Fusarium molds produce mycotoxins called fumonisins. These
molds commonly infect corn but also sometimes infect other grains like wheat.
The level of fumonisins in a corn product depends on weather conditions. High levels of
this toxin occur when hot, dry weather is followed by a period of high humidity. Milling,
storage, and manufacturing processes can also affect levels of contamination with fumonisins.
We know that fumonisins can cause a variety of illnesses in animals, especially to their
liver and kidneys, but more research is needed to know exactly how these toxins affect humans.
The FDA has published guidance levels for fumonisins.
Patulin
Patulin is a mycotoxin produced by Penicillium, Aspergillus and Byssochylamys molds
that grow on fruit, grains, and cheese. The best-known example is patulin in juice or cider made
from apples. Good harvest and storage practices—such as removing rotten portions of fruit—can
get rid of or greatly reduce patulin contamination. Fermentation also appears to destroy patulin
so it is not typically found in vinegar or alcohol made from fruit susceptible to the molds.
The risk of patulin contamination increases when companies use moldy apples to make
apple juice. Pasteurization won’t get rid of patulin. Drinking the contaminated apple juice can
cause nausea, vomiting, and possibly damage the DNA in some body cells.
The FDA has set an action level for patulin in apple juice and apple juice products.
Ochratoxin A
Ochratoxin A is a mycotoxin produced by certain Aspergillus and Penicillium molds. It’s
been found in contaminated grains, such as wheat, rye, oat, and barley, and in coffee, grapes and
wine. Contamination generally occurs when these foods are not stored and/or dried properly.
We know that ochratoxin A can cause kidney damage in animals. It may possibly cause
cancer in humans, but more research is needed to know exactly how this toxin affects humans.
How the FDA Monitors and Tests Mycotoxins in Foods
The FDA monitors mycotoxins in food and conducts research on how to best detect and
prevent mycotoxin contamination.
Methods for Testing
The FDA has established official methods for analyzing mycotoxins, which you can find
in Chapter 7, Part IV, Section II of the FDA’s Compliance Program Guidance Manual
on Mycotoxins in Domestic and Imported Foods (CP 7307.001).
The FDA’s Office of Regulatory Affairs (ORA) laboratories are in the process of
transitioning to a multi- mycotoxin liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LCMS/MS) method that has been multi-laboratory validated for the simultaneous quantification of
twelve mycotoxins in food (https://www.fda.gov/media/114240/download). You can:

Read about the LC-MS/MS method in the Chemical Analytical Manual (CAM)
for mycotoxins on our Foods Program Compendium of Analytical Laboratory
Methods webpage.

See the steps our scientists take when analyzing mycotoxins in food by reviewing
the ORA Laboratory Manual Volume IV Section 7 (Mycotoxin Analysis).
FDA-USDA Coordination on Aflatoxins
The FDA and the Agricultural Marketing Service in the U.S. Department of Agriculture
have a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU-225-19-031) that sets each agency’s
responsibilities regarding sampling and analyzing raw peanuts, Brazil nuts, and pistachio nuts for
aflatoxins.
13- Lecture.
State sanitary supervision in the field of food hygiene.
Organizational and legal bases of state sanitary supervision.
What are the principles of food hygiene and sanitation?
Important
Food
Hygiene
and
Safety
Principles
Clean hands, environment, kitchen and the food itself. Washing hands is the prerequisite of all as
cross contamination happens with hands. Separate the prepared food from raw food, rotten food
from fresh food and more importantly clean food from dirty places.
We live by principles. From sunshine to bedtime, everyone lives by rules. But health is
our first priority and food is an inevitable raw material to live. But don’t get used to anything that
names itself as food. According to WHO, Principles of Food Hygiene and Safety starts from
production and ends in consumption. Anywhere in between, you may end up eating
contaminated food. Really! Nobody wants that. I guess not you obviously! The principles of
food hygiene and safety is going to change the way you see the food and handle it.
What is Food Hygiene and Safety?
Food Hygiene and Safety indicates standard slaughtering or harvesting, processing,
storage, distribution, transportation and preparation. You have to maintain it so carefully that
elements of food do not get contaminated. So food safety standards are must.
Food Safety Standards
WHO/FAO has put some food standards for its 188 member countries and one
organization (EU). They assess the standards by scientific approach to analyse risk and direct
advice from the governments.
Important Food Hygiene and Safety Principles

Clean
Clean hands, environment, kitchen and the food itself. Washing hands is the prerequisite
of all as cross contamination happens with hands.

Separate
Separate the prepared food from raw food, rotten food from fresh food and more
importantly clean food from dirty places.

Cook and Chill
Cook and Chill seafoods, meat, poultry, and egg dishes at a minimum temperature to
destroy harmful microorganisms.

Specific Populations
Specific Populations are disturbed by some foodborne illness. Pregnant, OT patients,
infants or aged people should take special precaution about food hygiene and safety.
Once you eat, your body digests the food with acids and enzymes in the stomach. Every
food you eat is a carbohydrate and breaks down into glucose (the power generating element).
When you eat food with less digestive elements (more likely to say FAT), your stomach can
not break those down to glucose and you lack energy and fitness. Sometimes overeating a good
food causes you stomach disturbance, but naturally unclean or undercooked food is the prime
reason.
Preparation of Safe Food
According to the UK health Safety Executive, you have to ensure 4 factors and 10 actions
within these factors to ensure food safety issues. You may not have all safe food and hygiene
practices, but some are really necessary e.g. washing hands, cleaning food surfaces and
containers, separating fresh food from rotten foods, properly cooked meat and eggs etc. This
course is a pathway to your safe food preparation.
Food Hygiene Practices
Principles of Food Hygiene and safety refers to standard food quality maintenance. If you
work at any stage of food production/harvesting, processing, packaging or engage in preparing
the food to eat by yourself, you must practice the food hygiene factors to stay safe or keep your
consumers safe. Some of the hygiene types are1. Biological Hygiene
Biological hygiene refers to bacterial and microorganisms prevention. Disease causing
bacterias also known as ‘pathogens’ can grow in the foods between temperature danger zone
(5ºC – 60ºC) when left open for too long. Water, milk, neutral pH foods are flagged as high risk
food as they can be habitual for germs. Some bacterias (botulinum) can grow from a single cell
to 2 millions in seven hours.
2. Chemical hygiene
Chemical hygiene refers to preventing contamination by chemicals. If you work at a food
factory or in a kitchen, take care of your chemical products from food products.According
to Food Standards Agency, Common sources of chemical contamination in a professional
kitchen includes
Kitchen cleaning agents
Never keep food stored in the same place as your cleaning chemicals, and always use
cleaning products designed especially for kitchen use.

Unwashed fruits and vegetables
Pesticides and fungicides on fruits and vegetables can be harmful if ingested, so it’s
important to properly wash all fruits and vegetables before preparing them.

Food containers made from non-safe plastics
Single-use items like plastic containers are not designed to be reused again and again.
Always store food in containers that are specially designed for reuse.

Pest control products
Pest control products are extremely hazardous. Always store these products away from
food items and never use these products in areas where food is being prepared.

Kitchen equipment
Equipment with moving parts, such as slicers and mixers, may need regular oiling.
Always use food-safe oil to prevent chemical residues from contaminating food.
Cross hygiene
It refers to preventing transfer of contaminants from a surface, object or person to food.
There are many ways of happening this. Some of them could be
1. Clothing
Clothes with dirt can transport bacteria. If it is possible, try to use different clothes for
different purposes. You should also thoroughly wash your face and hands. This is especially
important when working with high-risk foods or when preparing allergen-free meals.
2. Utensils
Different utensils should be used to prepare different types of foods. For example, you
should never use the same chopping board or knife to prepare raw meat and ready to eat foods.
3. Food Handlers
Coughing, sneezing or even touching your face or hair before handling food can cause
cross-contamination. Washing hands regularly when handling food is essential.
4. Pests
Flies, cockroaches, rontent and birds carry harmful bacteria, which can contaminate the
food. Pest control is vitally important in the workplace when it comes to preventing crosscontamination.
5. Raw food storage
Cross-contamination frequently occurs when raw food comes into contact with cooked or
ready-to-eat food. If this happens, it’s fair to assume the cooked or ready-to-eat food has become
contaminated. Raw food should always be covered and stored below ready-to-eat food in the
refrigerator to prevent this type of contamination.
6. Waste control
Don’t throw your garbage box, rather seal it to prevent cross-contamination. It should
always be stored away from other items in the kitchen to ensure it never comes into contact with
food during preparation. Regular cleaning and sanitising of waste bins should also be carried out
to minimise the risk of pest infestation.
The Cost Effective Food Hygiene/Food Safety Measures
You can easily maintain the principles of food hygiene and safety without expending too
much by three simple steps:

Personal training e.g. clean hands, dress, no-smoking, short nails, head caps etc.

Proper food preserving and producing techniques

Premise of your work should be free of dirt and contaminating insects
(cockroaches, rats, geckos etc.)
Principles of Food Hygiene and Safety for Kids
Kids are not immune to bacteria like adults. So they tend to suffer from food poisoning
more than others even from regular foods sometimes. Teas, energy drinks, spice can harm a child
more than anyone. You have to know the ins and outs of Food hygiene for everyone that
concerns you. You should take some extra care to ensure kids’ food hygiene and safety.
Closing Note
The best way to achieve food hygiene and safety in a food business is through food safety
training and education. Food Handlers and operators must be trained in basic food safety
concepts and practical skills. You have to cook your food in safe cooking temperatures. Always
store your potentially hazardous food/ high risk foods in the proper manner. Never compromise
effective cleaning and sanitising techniques and personal hygiene responsibilities with regard
to food safety.
14- Lecture
Sanitary supervision of food industry, trade and public catering enterprises. Storage
and sale of foodstuffs
Sanitation is the creation and maintenance of conditions that will prevent food
contamination or food born illness and lower levels of disease-causing microorganisms to a safe
level. Cleaning is removing surface food or dirt for example from a surface area.
wash and dry your hands thoroughly before handling food, and wash and dry them again
frequently during work. dry your hands with a clean towel, disposable paper towel or under an
air dryer. never smoke, chew gum, spit, change a baby's nappy or eat in a food handling or food
storage area.
What are five sanitary practices?
Proper personal hygiene, including frequent hand and arm washing and covering cuts;
Proper cleaning and sanitizing of all food contact surfaces and utensils; Proper cleaning and
sanitizing of food equipment; Good basic housekeeping and maintenance;
What is the sanitary system?
Sanitation systems are a combination of different functional units that together allow
managing and reusing or disposing the different waste flows from households, institutions,
agriculture or industries in order to protect people and the environment. The systems are
designed to address the whole water as well as the nutrients cycle, from the toilet user where
wastewater is generated, over the collection, treatment up to reuse or discharge.
Water resources are under increasing pressure. Continuing population growth,
urbanisation, rapid industrialisation as well as expanding and intensifying food production are all
putting pressure on water resources (UNEP 2010). Once used, water is often discharged without
any treatment - despite the urgent need for water and nutrients in agriculture and the
contamination of aquatic ecosystems. In order to meet future demands for water and nutrients it
is important to adopt a sustainable wastewater management.
Wastewater management refers to the process in which wastes and wastewater are
managed from the point of generation to the point of use or ultimate disposal. The hardware
answers to wastewater management are sanitation systems. Sanitation systems are a combination
of different functional units that together allow managing and reusing or disposing the different
waste flows from households, institutions, agriculture or industries in order to protect people and
the environment. The systems are designed to address the whole water as well as the nutrients
cycle, from the toilet user where wastewater is generated, over the collection, treatment up to
reuse or discharge. In order that sanitation systems function reliably, the technical know-how for
the installation of functional units as well as their management, operation and maintenance must
be guaranteed.
Conventional sanitation systems generally refer to large sewer systems with centralised
high-tech treatment stations. These systems may be efficient and have significantly contributed
to improving the health of people and to lower environmental burden of wastewater discharge
during the past decades. However, they require huge amounts of water, which is mixed with
excreta and wastes, resulting in large volumes of highly polluted
wastewaters. Centralised treatment stations for these slurries not only involve large costs
for construction and operation, consume energy and chemicals, and have great management
requirements, but also are the nutrients lost to the air or finally disposed in landfills.
Conventional wastewater treatment systems have a large potential to be optimised and to be
made more sustainable by reducing the use of water (e.g. dry systems) and improving the
recovery and reuse of nutrients and energy.
There are many ways to improve conventional sanitation systems in order to reduce the
use of water or to efficiently recycle the generated wastewater and nutrients on any level (see
also TILLEY et al. 2008 for some examples).
In this toolbox, you will find the description a various functional units that can be
combined in order to build a sanitation system. The different functional units, according to their
position in the sanitation system, can be found in the hardware chapters of the “use”,
“collection”, “treatment” and “recharge/reuse” section. Each functional unit is described in terms
of function and design. You will also find information on in what context a given unit is
applicable and what are the disadvantages and advantages of the technology applied. This
information is particularly important as only based on that, different functional units can be
combined in order to optimise water and nutrient use and achieve the sustainability of the
sanitation system. Thus, by choosing the appropriate hardware tools (functional units) from the
sections “use”, “collection”, “treatment” and “reuse”,
together with the corresponding software tools adapted for your context, you can design
an integrated and appropriate sanitation system designed particularly for your situation.
The following overall scheme is intended to give you a better overview on how what kind of
functional units can be found in the toolbox and they fit together.
Wastewater can mean different things to different people with a large number of
definitions in use. Generally it describes water that has been used and that cannot be used any
more in one site and is therefore rejected to another (UNEP 2010). In a broader perspective,
wastewater can be defined as a combination of one or more of the following: domestic effluent;
water from commercial establishments and institutions, including hospitals; industrial effluent;
stormwater and other urban runoff; and agricultural, horticultural and aquaculture effluent. In
order to optimise the water and nutrient cycle and to emphasize the fact that used waters can be
reused for other purposes, depending on their composition; different terms more adapted to
describe the composition of the different types of wastewater have evolved. The separation of
these different streams, allows treating and reusing them more easily, particularly adapted to
their composition. The term used to described the different wastewaters in this SSWM toolbox
are:

(Fresh)water (surface or ground)

Precipitation (Rain/Stormwater)

Drinking water

Blackwater

Faecal Sludge (Settled / pre-treated blackwater)

Greywater

Urine

Faeces

Excreta

Organic waste

Non-biodegradable wastewater (e.g. industrial wastewater; agricultural water)

Water for fertigation



Fertiliser (e.g. stored urine, struvite, phoskraft etc.)
Biogas
Compost/Biosolids (including humanure, terra preta etc.)
The functional units (places) generating wastewater are different for domestic, industrial
and agricultural water uses.
At the domestic level, wastewater is generated in bathrooms and kitchens and the
hardware tools associated with this kind of wastewater generation are toilet systems, showers
and water tabs.
The way that industrial wastewater are generated is much more variable and their
functional units generating industrial wastewater are not described in detail. However, they are
either biodegradable, and can be treated similar to blackwater or greywater; or they contain
pollutants which are not biodegradable and require an advanced oxidation process for treatment.
Often, industrial wastewater also just contains heat, which can be reused for energy generation or
other processes (e.g. aquaculture).
Agricultural wastewater is similarly either biodegradable (the most often) and can be
treated and reused as blackwater (e.g. manure from livestock); or they are not biodegradable (e.g.
water containing residues of pesticides etc.) and require advanced oxidation processes for
treatment.
The optimisation of water use and wastewater generation consists mainly in the reduction
of water requirements (e.g. by choosing a dry or low-flush toilet) and in the separation of the
different wastewaters streams to treat and use them more easily according to their composition
(i.e. source separation).
Different wastewater streams form households. In addition to that, society produces
wastewaters from businesses and industries, agricultural wastewaters and solid wastes (organic
and inorganic). Source: SPUHLER (2010)
If the different waste flows are not treated and reused or discharged on-site, wastewater
needs to be collected to be managed in semi-centralised or centralised treatment units.
This can be done either in a sewer collection system or by cartage. Sewer systems are
generally expensive to install and require much operation and maintenance. There are many
ways to optimise sewer systems, such as collecting rain and stormwater separately (or reusing
them directly), simplifying the network (using less connections and less pumps or small-bore
sewers) and reduce the required size (an thus operation and maintenance) by installing several
DEWATS instead of one large treatment station. Manual cartage can be expensive and cause a
health risk, especially when wastewater is diluted. When urine and faeces are separated both
products can be transported more easily and more safely. The utilisation of a vacuum truck or a
gulper can reduce the inconvenience and health risk associated with manual cartage.
Wastewater treatment
Factsheet Block Body
Wastewater treatment means the preparation and transformation of wastewater and
related products (e.g. blackwater, faecal sludge, greywater, non-biodegradable waters, etc.) for
safe reuse or disposal in order to minimise health risks for people and protect the environment
from pollution.
The main parameters that need to be treated/removed (depending on the
reuse/recharge/discharge options) are solids (i.e. total suspended solids or TSS); the biological
and chemical oxygen demand (i.e. COD and BOD); nutrients (mainly nitrogen and phosphorus);
and pathogenic microorganisms (pathogens). Other pollutants that need to be treated are heavy
metals or persistent organic compounds (e.g. pesticides, pharmaceuticals, micropollutants).
Domestic wastewaters are most often treated with biological wastewater treatment
processes. Non-biodegradable wastewaters (for instance form the pharmaceutical industry or
pesticides manufactures) need to be treated chemically (chemical wastewater treatment,
advanced oxidation processes).
The optimisation of wastewater treatments depends much on the context and local
conditions. The main potential of wastewater treatment optimisation lies in the reuse of the
products (e.g. water and nutrients, see also sustainable sanitation), the optimisation of energy
requirement (e.g. anaerobic wastewater treatment vs. aerobic wastewater treatment) and the
optimisation of scale (e.g. on-site wastewater treatments or decentralised wastewater treatments
vs. (semi-)centralised treatments). The main factor influencing whether a wastewater treatment is
optimised or not is the suitability of a respective functional unit to a given context and the overall
sanitation system.
What to consider when storing food?
Keep high-risk food at 5 °C or below or above 60 °C to avoid the temperature danger
zone and food poisoning. Store raw foods below cooked foods. Store food in suitable, covered
containers. Avoid refreezing thawed foods.
Food storage is the process of keeping raw or finished products in safe containers with
controlled conditions. Proper food storage can help prevent spoilage and contamination of foods
that can lead to potentially fatal food poisoning. Food storage can vary among dry, refrigerated,
and freezing conditions.
Food storage is a way of decreasing the variability of the food supply in the face of
natural, inevitable variability. It allows food to be eaten for some time (typically weeks to
months) after harvest rather than solely immediately.
There are three types of food storage options: dry storage refers to the storing of items
which don't require a climate controlled environment; refrigerated storage is defined as foods
that require storage at a cool temperature, but not a freezing temperature; and frozen food
storage, which are foods that are required …
Food Preservation
Food maintenance involves the care and treatment of food so that it stays in good
condition for a long time.
Food Storage
Food storage is the storage of food stored or purchased in a safe and suitable
environment.
What are the three types of food storage?

Dry food storage. Firstly, dry food storage includes any food that needs to be
stored in an environment without climate control. ...

Refrigerated food storage. Refrigerated food storage refers to storing foods at a
cool, but not freezing, temperature. ...

Frozen food storage.
Why is food storage important?
Proper food storage helps to preserve the quality and nutritional value of the foods you
purchase, and also helps make the most of your food dollar by preventing spoilage. Additionally,
proper food storage can help prevent foodborne illnesses caused by harmful bacteria.
What are the five examples of food storage?
Here are some things to consider, depending on which method you're using.

Canning. Canning can be a cost-effective way to preserve the quality of food at
home. ...

Freezing. A great option for preserving most foods. ...

Drying or Dehydration. ...

Fermentation. ...

Pickling. ...

Cold Storage.
What are storage methods?
The storage system can be based on electromagnetic, optical or other medium depending
on its type. The most prominent methods of storing data include physical storage devices like
tape drives, hard disk drives, solid state drives, USB, CD/DVD and virtual storage medium like
cloud.
Module 2: Technology safety of bread, pasta and confectionery products
15-Lecture.
Natural components of food that have a negative effect on the human body
Natural components that can negatively affect the body include natural
toxins like mycotoxins and solanine, anti-nutrients such as phytates and oxalates,
and even healthy foods in excessive amounts, such as high levels of mercury in
certain fish or saturated fats
К природным компонентам, которые могут негативно влиять на организм,
относятся природные токсины, такие как микотоксины и соланин, антипитательные
вещества, такие как фитаты и оксалаты, и даже полезные продукты в чрезмерных
количествах, такие как высокое содержание ртути в некоторых видах рыбы или
насыщенных жирах
Natural toxins

Mycotoxins: Produced by molds, they can cause acute illness or even death. They are often
found in improperly stored grains and nuts.
✅**Explanation of the statement:**
*Микотоксины** - это **токсичные химические соединения**, вырабатываемые
естественным путем определенными видами **плесневых грибов**. Эти грибки могут
расти на различных сельскохозяйственных продуктах, особенно на зерновых (кукурузе,
пшенице, ячмене, рисе) и орехах (арахисе, фисташках, миндале и т.д.), если они хранятся
в теплых, влажных условиях.
**Mycotoxins** are **toxic chemical compounds** produced naturally by certain types of
**molds (fungi)**. These molds can grow on a variety of agricultural products — especially
**grains (corn, wheat, barley, rice)** and **nuts (peanuts, pistachios, almonds, etc.)** — when
they are stored in **warm, humid, or damp conditions**.
Key Facts:
* **Produced by:** Molds such as *Aspergillus*, *Penicillium*, and *Fusarium*.
Common types:
Aflatoxins** – produced by *Aspergillus flavus* and *A. parasiticus* (found in peanuts,
corn).
Ochratoxin A** – found in grains, coffee, dried fruit.
Fumonisins** – mainly in corn.
Zearalenone** and **Trichothecenes** – found in cereals.
Вызывается:** такими плесневыми грибами, как *Aspergillus*, *Penicillium* и
*Fusarium*. * **Распространенные виды:** * **Афлатоксины** – продуцируются
*Aspergillus flavus* и *A. parasiticus* (содержатся в арахисе, кукурузе). * ** Охратоксин
А** – содержится в зернах, кофе, сухофруктах. * ** Фумонизины** – в основном в
кукурузе. * ** Зеараленон** и **Трихотецены** – содержатся в злаках
Health Effects:
Acute poisoning: Nausea, vomiting, liver damage, or even death (in high doses).
Chronic exposure: Can cause cancer, immune suppression, and growth retardation**.
Aflatoxins** are among the most dangerous and are **carcinogenic** (liver cancer risk).
Острое отравление: тошнота, рвота, повреждение печени или даже смерть (в высоких
дозах).
Хроническое воздействие: ** Может вызвать ** рак**, ** подавление иммунитета** и **
задержку роста**.
Афлатоксины** являются одними из самых опасных и **канцерогенных веществ** (риск
развития рака печени)
Prevention:
wash grains and nuts** before storage.
* **Store in cool, dry conditions** to prevent mold growth.
* **Inspect** for visible mold or musty odor.
* **Use antifungal treatments** or **hermetic storage** (airtight containers).
Профилактика:
* Тщательно промойте зерна и орехи** перед хранением.
* **Храните в сухом прохладном месте**, чтобы предотвратить рост плесени.
* ** Проверьте ** на наличие видимой плесени или затхлого запаха.
* ** Используйте противогрибковые средства** или **храните в герметичных
контейнерах**.

Solanine and chaconine: Found in green-tinged potatoes and other solanaceous plants, these can
cause gastrointestinal and neurological issues if consumed in large quantities.

Furocoumarins: Stress toxins in certain plants that can cause skin reactions and digestive
problems.

Mercury: Found in high concentrations in certain large, deep-sea fish, mercury is a neurotoxin
that can be harmful, especially to developing brains.

Poisonous mushrooms: Some varieties contain toxins that can cause severe symptoms like
hallucinations, vomiting, and diarrhea.
Anti-nutrients

Phytates: Found in whole grains, legumes, and nuts, they can inhibit the absorption of minerals
like iron and zinc.

Oxalates: Present in leafy greens, beets, and nuts, they can interfere with calcium absorption and
may contribute to kidney stones in some people.

Glucosinolates: Found in cruciferous vegetables like broccoli and cabbage, they can affect
thyroid function in very large quantities.
Other compounds and considerations

Saturated fats: While a normal part of a balanced diet, a high intake has been linked to cognitive
issues in some studies and is a risk factor for heart disease.

Excessive natural sugars: High fructose corn syrup, though natural, can contribute to health
problems like fatty liver disease and obesity when consumed in excess.

High intake of certain vitamins/minerals: Some healthy foods, like nutmeg, can become toxic
in very large doses due to compounds like myristicin, which can cause seizures and heart
irregularities.

Some natural toxins can be formed in food as defense mechanisms of plants,
through their infestation with toxin-producing mould, or through ingestion by animals of toxinproducing microorganisms.

Natural toxins can cause a variety of adverse health effects and pose a serious
health threat to both humans and livestock. Some of these toxins are extremely potent.

Adverse health effects can be acute poisoning ranging from allergic reactions to
severe stomachache and diarrhoea, and even death.

Long-term health consequences include effects on the immune, reproductive or
nervous systems, and also cancer.

A scientific expert committee jointly convened by WHO and the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) – called JECFA – is the international
body responsible for evaluating the health risk from natural toxins in food.

International standards and codes of practice to limit exposure to natural toxins
from certain foods are established by the Codex Alimentarius Commission based on JECFA
assessments.
Natural toxins are toxic compounds that are naturally produced by living organisms.
These toxins are not harmful to the organisms themselves but they may be toxic to other
creatures, including humans, when eaten. These chemical compounds have diverse structures
and differ in biological function and toxicity.
Some toxins are produced by plants as a natural defense mechanism against predators,
insects or microorganisms, or as consequence of infestation with microorganisms, such as
mould, in response to climate stress (such as drought or extreme humidity).
Other sources of natural toxins are microscopic algae and plankton in oceans or
sometimes in lakes that produce chemical compounds that are toxic to humans but not to fish or
shellfish that eat these toxin-producing organisms. When people eat fish or shellfish that contain
these toxins, illness can rapidly follow.
Some of the most commonly found natural toxins that can pose a risk to our health are
described below.
Aquatic biotoxins
Toxins formed by algae in the ocean and fresh water are called algal toxins. Algal toxins
are generated during blooms of particular naturally occurring algal species. Shellfish such as
mussels, scallops and oysters are more likely to contain these toxins than fish. Algal toxins can
cause diarrhea, vomiting, tingling, paralysis and other effects in humans, other mammals or fish.
The algal toxins can be retained in shellfish and fish or contaminate drinking water. They have
no taste or smell, and are not eliminated by cooking or freezing.
Another example is ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP) which is caused by consuming fish
contaminated with dinoflagellates that produce ciguatoxins. Some fish known to harbour
ciguatoxins include barracuda, black grouper, dog snapper, and king mackerel. Symptoms of
ciguatera poisoning include nausea, vomiting, and neurologic symptoms, such as tingling
sensation on fingers and toes. There is currently no specific treatment for ciguatera poisoning.
Cyanogenic glycosides
Cyanogenic glycosides are phytotoxins (toxic chemicals produced by plants) which occur
in at least 2000 plant species, of which a number of species are used as food in some areas of the
world. Cassava, sorghum, stone fruits, bamboo roots and almonds are especially important foods
containing cyanogenic glycosides. The potential toxicity of a cyanogenic plant depends primarily
on the potential that its consumption will produce a concentration of cyanide that is toxic to
exposed humans. In humans, the clinical signs of acute cyanide intoxication can include: rapid
respiration, drop in blood pressure, dizziness, headache, stomach pains, vomiting, diarrhoea,
mental confusion, cyanosis with twitching and convulsions followed by terminal coma. Death
due to cyanide poisoning can occur when the cyanide level exceeds the limit an individual is able
to detoxify.
Furocoumarins
These toxins are present in many plants such as parsnips (closely related to carrots and
parsley), celery roots, citrus plants (lemon, lime, grapefruit, bergamot) and some medicinal
plants. Furocoumarins are stress toxins and are released in response to stress, such as physical
damage to the plant. Some of these toxins can cause gastrointestinal problems in susceptible
people. Furocoumarins are phototoxic, they can cause severe skin reactions under sunlight (UVA
exposure). While mainly occurring after dermal exposure, such reactions have also been reported
after consumption of large quantities of certain vegetables containing high levels of
furocoumarins.
Lectins
Many types of beans contain toxins called lectins, and kidney beans have the highest
concentrations – especially red kidney beans. As few as 4 or 5 raw beans can cause severe
stomachache, vomiting and diarrhoea. Lectins are destroyed when the dried beans are soaked for
at least 12 hours and then boiled vigorously for at least 10 minutes in water. Tinned kidney beans
have already had this process applied and so can be used without further treatment.
Mycotoxins
Mycotoxins are naturally occurring toxic compounds produced by certain types of
moulds. Moulds that can produce mycotoxins grow on numerous foodstuffs such as cereals,
dried fruits, nuts and spices. Mould growth can occur before harvest or after harvest, during
storage, on/in the food itself often under warm, damp and humid conditions.
Most mycotoxins are chemically stable and survive food processing. The effects of foodborne mycotoxins can be acute with symptoms of severe illness and even death appearing
quickly after consumption of highly contaminated food products. Long term effects on health of
chronic mycotoxin exposure include the induction of cancers and immune deficiency.

Fact sheet on Mycotoxins
Solanines and chaconine
All solanacea plants, which include tomatoes, potatoes, and eggplants, contain natural
toxins called solanines and chaconine (which are glycoalkaloids). While levels are generally low,
higher concentrations are found in potato sprouts and bitter-tasting peel and green parts, as well
as in green tomatoes. The plants produce the toxins in response to stresses like bruising, UV
light, microorganisms and attacks from insect pests and herbivores. To reduce the production of
solanines and chaconine it is important to store potatoes in a dark, cool and dry place, and not to
eat green or sprouting parts.
Poisonous mushrooms
Wild mushrooms may contain several toxins, such as muscimol and muscarine, which
can cause vomiting, diarrhoea, confusion, visual disturbances, salivation, and hallucinations.
Onset of symptoms occurs 6–24 hours or more after ingestion of mushrooms. Fatal poisoning is
usually associated with delayed onset of symptoms which are very severe, with toxic effect on
the liver, kidney and nervous systems. Cooking or peeling does not inactivate the toxins. It is
recommended to avoid any wild mushrooms, unless definitively identified as non-poisonous.
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids
Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids (PAs) are toxins produced by an estimated 600 plant species. The
main plant sources are the families Boraginaceae, Asteraceae and Fabaceae. Many of these are
weeds that can grow in fields and contaminate food crops. PAs can cause a variety of adverse
health effects; they can be acutely toxic and of main concern is the DNA-damaging potential of
certain PAs, potentially leading to cancer.
PAs are stable during processing, and have been detected in herbal teas, honey, herbs and
spices and other food products, such as cereals and cereal products. Human exposure is
estimated to be low, however. Due to the complexity of the subject and the large number of
related compounds, the overall health risk has not been fully evaluated yet. Guidance is under
development by the FAO/WHO Codex Committee on Contaminants in Food on management
strategies to prevent PA-containing plants from entering the food chain.
How can I minimize the health risk from natural toxins?
When it comes to natural toxins it is important to note that they can be present in a
variety of different crops and foodstuff. In a usual balanced, healthy diet, the levels of natural
toxins are well below the threshold for acute and chronic toxicity.
To minimize the health risk from natural toxins in food, people are advised to:

not assume that if something is 'natural' it is automatically safe;

throw away bruised, damaged or discoloured food, and in particular mouldy
foods;

throw away any food that does not smell or taste fresh, or has an unusual taste;
and

only eat mushrooms or other wild plants that have definitively been identified as
nonpoisonous.
WHO response
WHO, in collaboration with FAO, is responsible for assessing the risks to humans of
natural toxins – through contamination in food – and for recommending adequate protections.
Risk assessments of natural toxins in food done by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert
Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) are used by governments and by the Codex Alimentarius
Commission (the intergovernmental standards-setting body for food) to establish maximum
levels in food or provide other risk management advice to control or prevent contamination.
Codex standards are the international reference for national food supplies and for trade in food,
so that people everywhere can be confident that the food they buy meets the agreed standards for
safety and quality, no matter where it was produced.
16 - Lecture.
Factors that reduce absorption of minerals. Peptide poisons
Mineral absorption is regulated by both external and internal factors. These factors
primarily include temperature, light, H+ ion concentration, oxygen concentration, ion interaction,
plant development, and aging.
Factors Affecting Mineral Absorption
Mineral absorption is regulated by both external and internal factors. These factors
primarily include temperature, light, H+ ion concentration, oxygen concentration, ion interaction,
etc.
Introduction
So far, more than 105 elements have been found. Only roughly 20 have been discovered
to be necessary for plant development and metabolism. A lack of any element in plants can cause
symptoms such as chlorosis, necrosis, stunted development, and so on. To avoid these
malformations in plants, effective mineral element absorption by plants is critical.
Previously, it was widely assumed that plants take nutrients from the soil in addition to
water. Further research into plant activities established that water absorption and mineral element
absorption are distinct processes. The mechanism of element absorption in plants operates in two
ways. Passive and active absorption are examples of this.
Mineral and Essential Element Absorption
An essential element is one that a plant cannot complete its life cycle without, and it plays
a crucial physiological function in plant life. These elements have a direct role in plant
metabolism and cannot be substituted by another element.
Mineral absorption refers to the process of absorbing nutrients from the soil. It occurs as
a result of the root system’s close interaction with the soil solution. Root hairs are extensions of
the root epidermis that remain in direct touch with soil water and minerals and absorb the water
at first. As a result, they are also known as absorbent hair.
Plants’ Essential Elements Sources
Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are the building blocks of macromolecules, which
constitute the majority of the plant body. These are not mineral elements since they are not
absorbed from the soil. Similarly, nitrogen is required by plants but is not classified as a mineral
element since plants need air nitrogen fixed by soil bacteria in the form of ammonium and nitrate
ions.
The soil, as a whole, is the primary source of many nutrients such as phosphorus, sulphur,
magnesium, calcium, potassium, and so on. These mineral elements are absorbed by plants in
their ionic forms. Mineral elements are considered to be generated from parent rock weathering
and retained by the soil.

Temperature: The rate of mineral absorption increases or decreases as the
temperature rises or falls. In general, an increase in temperature causes an increase in salt
absorption up to a certain point. Mineral absorption slows or stops entirely at extremely high
temperatures. The inhibition is caused by protein denaturation, which is directly or indirectly
implicated in salt absorption. Temperature also influences ion movement because active ion
absorption is dependent on metabolic energy and the activity of ion carriers in the plasma
membrane. At increasing temperatures, the enzymes involved in mineral absorption become
inactivated

Light: Mineral absorption is affected by metabolic energy and transpiration rate.
Both transpiration and photosynthesis are controlled by light. Transpiration aids in the bulk flow
of mineral ions into the cell, while photosynthesis conserves the energy required for active
mineral ion absorption. As a result, a lack of light may even prevent plants from absorbing
mineral ions

H+ ion concentration: In general, a reduction in the pH of soil solution promotes
anion absorption while a rise in pH favours cation absorption. However, pH values outside of the
normal range can harm plant tissue and limit salt uptake

Oxygen concentration: Mineral absorption, like many other metabolic processes,
ceases to operate in the absence of oxygen. In the absence of oxygen, plant aerobic respiration
ceases, and so the availability of metabolic activity diminishes. Active mineral ion absorption is
impossible in the absence of metabolic energy. The availability of soil, as well as its
concentration, regulates the pace of respiration and the release of metabolic energy. The rate of
ion absorption falls when the oxygen content in the soil atmosphere is insufficient

Interaction with other minerals: The absorption of one kind of ion is modified by
the absorption of another type of ion. Ca++,Mg++, and other polyvalent ions influence K+
absorption. It’s most likely because of competition for binding sites on the carrier. However, in
the presence of Ca++ ions, K+ and Br absorption becomes feasible. In the absorption of K, Rb,
and Cs ions, there is reciprocal competition
Conclusion
Mineral absorption refers to the process of absorbing nutrients from the soil. Root hairs
are extensions of the root epidermis that remain in direct touch with soil water and minerals and
absorb the water at first. Plants’ Essential Elements Sources Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are
the building blocks of macromolecules, which constitute the majority of the plant body. Active
absorption refers to the movement of ions against a concentration or ECP gradient. Hogland
investigated the active absorption and accumulation of ions against a concentration gradient in
the green algae Nitella and Valonia by utilising energy. The cells of these algae continue to
absorb K+ and phosphate ions to the point where their concentration exceeds the concentration
of ions in the pond water by hundreds or thousands of times. Temperature also influences ion
movement because active ion absorption is dependent on metabolic energy and the activity of
ion carriers in the plasma membrane.
Peptide toxins
Peptide toxins originate from many diverse sources, from bacteria to marine organisms
and plants. The bacterial exotoxin STa is a ribosomally synthesized, heat stable peptide 18 (STp)
or 19 (STh) amino acid peptide secreted by enterotoxigenic E.
17 - Lecture.
Chemical (anthropogenic) harmful substances
Grain and processed products. Food - food grains. Radioactive pollution.
Radionuclides.
Anthropogenic chemicals are widely used in agriculture, industry, medicine, and military
operations. Examples include pesticides such as atrazine, pentachorophenol (PCP), 1,3dichloropropene, and DDT, explosives such as trinitrotoluene (TNT), solvents such as
trichloroethylene, and dielectric fluids such as PCBs.
What are the 5 chemicals that can be harmful to the environment?

Acrylamide.

Arsenic.

Benzene.

Benzophenone-3 (BP-3)

Bisphenol A (BPA)

Cadmium.

Chlordane and Heptachlor.

Cotinine.
Anthropogenic sources such as domestic and industrial waste water effluents, urban and
agricultural runoff, fossil fuel combustion, atmospheric deposition, and antifouling paints from
ships (mainly tin and copper) can increase metal concentrations in marine environments to
higher than background levels.
When chemical reactions are not properly managed, they can have harmful, or even
catastrophic consequences, such as toxic fumes, fires, and explosions. These reactions may result
in death and injury to people, damage to physical property, and severe effects on the
environment.
Humans impact the physical environment in many ways: overpopulation, pollution,
burning fossil fuels, and deforestation. Changes like these have triggered climate change, soil
erosion, poor air quality, and undrinkable water.
The most important groups of anthropogenic air pollution sources are defined
by industrial processed, residential heating systems, transportation (terrestrial, naval and aerial)
and agricultural systems.
Some chemicals are hazardous because of their physical properties: they can explode,
burn or react easily with other chemicals. Since gasoline can burn and its vapors can explode,
gasoline is also hazardous. A chemical can be toxic, or hazardous, or both.
What is the most harmful chemical reaction?
In general, the most dangerous type of chemical reactions are combustion reactions.
Combustion always involves oxygen as a reactant and results in the release of energy as heat.
Human impact on biodiversity, direct or indirect, involves four basic factors:
(1) overexploitation of natural resources; (2) habitat modification, conversion, and
fragmentation; (3) the introduction of exotic (nonnative) species; and (4) pollution.
By the term anthropogenic elements, we refer to elements constructed by humans (e.g.,
buildings, walls, or cars).
The product labels contain clear symbols that quickly identify the chemical as hazardous.
These may include: Pictograms - recognisable symbols that identify hazards (eg, flames, bomb,
skull and crossbones) Signal words - WARNING or DANGER.
Types of chemical compounds include ionic compounds, covalent compounds, and
organic compounds. Ionic compounds are made up of charged particles called ions.
What are harmful materials?
Harmful Materials means products or wastes containing corrosive, toxic, biocidal,
radioactive, flammable or explosive materials; likely to generate toxic, flammable, explosive or
corrosive materials in quantities likely to be hazardous when mixed with the wastewater stream;
likely to be deleterious to the health
In normal situations, people are exposed to natural radiation sources as well as humanmade sources daily. Every day, people inhale and ingest radionuclides from air, food and water.
Most of these radionuclides are naturally present in our environment, but a minor proportion
come from human-made sources related with medical and industrial applications of radiation.
Additional radioactivity may be present in food if radioactive materials are released as the
result of a nuclear or radiological emergency. Either falling from the air or carried in rainwater or
snow, these radioactive materials can deposit on the surface of foods like vegetables or animal
feed. Over time, radionuclides may be transferred through soil into crops or animals and build up
within food. Radionuclides can also be washed into rivers, lakes and the sea where fish and
seafood could take them up.
Radioactive substances released due to a radiological or nuclear emergency can be
measured in the environment using different detection methods. Very small amounts of
radioactivity, such as those naturally present in food, might be identified using very sensitive
detection techniques that are currently available. The sampling of food should target in priority
the main potential contributors to radiation exposure based on their susceptibility to radioactive
contamination and their significance in the diet of the general population and most vulnerable
populations groups, such as the infant and young child, and women of childbearing age. It is
important to bear in mind that the dietary exposure to radioactive material can increase as the
result of either a high concentration or a high consumption of contaminated food, and therefore
both aspects need consideration.
There are internationally agreed standards for radionuclide levels in internationally traded
food following a nuclear or radiological emergency. The Codex Guideline Levels (GLs),
published by the Joint FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission, are provided for adult and
infant foods. The GLs state, “as far as generic radiological protection of food consumers is
concerned, when radionuclide levels in food do not exceed the corresponding GL, the food
should be considered as safe for human consumption.”
When the GLs are exceeded, national governments shall decide whether and under what
circumstances the food should be distributed within their territory or jurisdiction. National
governments may wish to adopt different values for internal use within their own territories,
where the assumptions concerning food distribution that have been made to derive the GLs may
not apply, e.g., in the case of widespread radioactive contamination. For foods that are consumed
in small quantities, such as spices, that represent a small percentage of total diet and hence a
small contribution to the total dose, the GLs may be increased by a factor of 10.
What radionuclides can be found in food?
All foods contain natural radionuclides
In addition, the Chernobyl accident and the atmospheric nuclear weapons tests gave rise
to artificial radionuclides in food
The natural radioactivity in foods is mainly caused by the potassium isotope potassium40 and the long-lived radionuclides of the uranium-radium decay chain and the thorium decay
chain
Among artificial radionuclides, especially caesium-137 is important for the radiation
exposure to man in Germany nowadays
The natural radioactivity in foods contributing to the radiation exposure to man is mainly
caused by the potassium isotope potassium-40 and the long-lived radionuclides of the uraniumradium decay chain and the thorium decay chain. Relevant are

uranium-238,

uranium-234,

radium-226,

radium-228,

lead-210,

polonium-210 and

the thorium isotopes thorium-230, thorium-232 and thorium-228.
Among artificial radionuclides, caesium-137 plays an important role as to food from
forests.
How do plants and animals take up radionuclides?
Radionuclides have, in part, similar chemical characteristics as nutrients. Therefore,
plants and animals also take up radioactive matter with the nutrients they need for growth. The
level of specific activities in foods depends

on the radioactivity content of the used source media (soils, water),

on the availability of the nutrients and other substances from soil and water, and

on other conditions at the site of the plant or animal production.
Certain plants or parts of them, such as Brazil nuts and some mushrooms species, for
example wood hedgehog, enrich radionuclides to a high degree.
Some plants or parts of them, such as Brazil nuts, and some mushroom species, such as
wood hedgehog, enrich certain radionuclides to a high degree.
Radon decay products can deposit on leaf surfaces and be taken up in the leaves
Foods can also be radioactively contaminated via the air. From soils and rocks, for
example, radon-222 gets into the atmosphere and decays into its radioactive decay products,
which attach to suspended particulates. These can deposit on leaf surfaces and be taken up in the
leaves. Of special importance are here the long-lived decay products of radon-222, the
radionuclides lead-210 and polonium-210 of which higher activity levels, particularly occur in
leafy vegetables.
In the past radionuclides deposited from the atmosphere onto plant-based food and
animal feed in Germany also after the Chernobyl accident and the atmospheric nuclear weapons
tests.
Compared with muscle meat, offal - especially livers and kidneys - has higher levels of
natural radionuclides, because these organs filter the harmful substances during metabolism.
Fish and shell fish
Natural radionuclides can also accumulate in fish and shell fish (among others in the soft
tissue of clams, prawns, lobsters and shrimps), in particular lead-210 and polonium-210.
Where do the radionuclides deposit?
Depending on the plant species and the respective development and nutritional condition
of the plant at the time of harvesting, the mineral distribution in the plant parts varies. These
distributions influence the activity levels in plant-based foods. For example,
the activity concentrations of the radium isotopes radium-226 and radium-228 in cereal grains
are higher than those in vegetables or fruit.
Via plants and animals radionuclides get into the human food chain. The
specific activity decreases in the food chain – with the exception of fish.
Potassium: Engine of the human metabolism
In the human body, a constant portion of potassium must be constantly present in order
for the metabolism to work. Hence, the human body regulates its potassium content
continuously. We can cover our potassium need entirely with our diet.
The element potassium contains naturally occurring 0.0117 per cent potassium-40 with a
specific activity of 31.6 becquerel per gram of potassium. Since this share is always the same,
the potassium-40 activity can be calculated from the potassium content.
Depending on age, gender and other factors, the potassium-40 activity of the human body
is between about 40 and 60 becquerel per kilogram of body weight. The effective dose due to
potassium-40 is on average 0.165 millisievert per year for adults and 0.185 millisievert per year
for children.
Plant-based foods
Potassium is vital for all organisms and considerable amounts of it are mostly present in
them:

In plant-based foods, specific activity levels between 50 becquerel per kilogram of
fresh mass in fruit and 380 becquerel per kilogram of fresh mass in ripe peas or beans can be
found.

The values are similar for products of animal origin (about 50 becquerel per litre
in cow milk up to about 100 becquerel per kilogram of fresh mass in muscle meat, liver and
kidneys of cattle).

As a result of their manufacturing processes, milk powder and smoked sausage
contain higher activities (above 180 becquerel per kilogram of fresh mass).

The activity level in edible mushrooms varies between almost 10 and more than
1,000 becquerel per kilogram of fresh mass in Germany.
Caesium-137: Legacy of the Chernobyl accident and the atmospheric nuclear weapons
tests
The Chernobyl accident particularly affected Southern Germany. Earlier, the atmospheric
nuclear weapons tests gave rise to a widespread radioactive contamination of Germany. Today,
food produced in Germany shows caesium-137 levels of only a few becquerel per kilogram of
fresh mass or less.
However, some species of edible wild mushrooms and game, in particular wild boars,
might show significantly higher contamination levels.
18- Lecture.
Zearalenone and its derivatives. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Pesticides
Zearalenone (ZEA) and its derivatives are mycotoxins with estrogenic effects on
mammals. The biotransformation for ZEA in animals involves the formation of two major
metabolites, α- and β-zearalenol (α-ZOL and β-ZOL), which are subsequently conjugated with
glucuronic acid.
Mycotoxin conjugates formed by plants are called masked mycotoxins [8]. Examples
are zearalenone-14-O-β-glucoside (ZEN-14-Glc) and zearalenone-16-O-β-glucoside (ZEN-16Glc) (see Figure 1). Zearalenone-14-sulfate (ZEN-14-S, see Figure 1) is an example for a ZEN
conjugate of fungal origin.
Zearalenone is a macrolide comprising a fourteen-membered lactone fused to 1,3dihydroxybenzene; a potent estrogenic metabolite produced by some Giberella species. It has a
role as a fungal metabolite and a mycoestrogen. It is a macrolide and a member of resorcinols.
What is the use of zearalenone?
Because it's associated with breast enlargement in people, zearalenone is in many breastenhancing dietary supplements. Zearalenone has been widely used in the United States since
1969 to help cattle grow faster and bigger. Usual dose: No dose has been established.
Zearalenone is an estrogenic mycotoxin, which binds to the same receptors as the natural
hormone estrogen binds. It causes increased estrogenic activity that can adversely affect
reproduction through symptoms such as lowered embryo survival, increased infertility and the
attrition of testosterone in young male animals.
What is another name for zearalenone?
Zearalenone (Synonyms: Mycotoxin F2; Toxin F2)
Zearalenone (ZEA), one of the most prevalent estrogenic mycotoxins, is mainly produced
by Fusarium fungi and has been proven to affect the reproductive capacity of animals.
Zearalenone (ZEA) is produced by some Fusarium species. This is a mycotoxin with low
acute toxicity in experimental animals and there is no report of acute toxicity in humans.
Symptoms of chronic exposure are caused by interactions of ZEA and its metabolites with
estrogen receptors.
Тoxin and Mechanism of Action
Thus, zearalenone can occupy and stimulate estrogenic receptors, and the induced
estrogenic response is indistinguishable from that caused by estradiol. Uterine and mammary
effects are induced by an interaction of zearalenone with estrogenic cytosolic receptors in these
organs.
Zearalenone (ZEA), one of the mycotoxins, exerts different mechanisms of toxicity in
different cell types at different doses. It can not only stimulate cell proliferation but also inhibit
cell viability, induce cell apoptosis, and cause cell death.
Zearalenone (ZEA) is a secondary metabolite produced by Fusarium spp., the filamentous
fungi. Food and feed contamination with zearalenone has adverse effects on health and economy.
What is the determination of zearalenone?
The determination of zearalenone and its metabolites in various matrices, first of all
biological and environmental samples, poses significant problems. A variety ways of extracting
and purifying zearalenone, including liquid-liquid extraction and solid-phase extraction, are
described.
Are polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons pesticides?
These pure PAHs usually exist as colorless, white, or pale yellow-green solids. PAHs are
found in coal tar, crude oil, creosote, and roofing tar, but a few are used in medicines or to make
dyes, plastics, and pesticides.
What is an example of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons?
These priority PAHs include naphthalene, acenaphthylene, acenaphthene, fluorene,
anthracene,
phenanthrene,
fluoranthene,
pyrene,
chrysene,
benz[a]anthracene,
benzo[b]fluoranthene, benzo[k]fluoranthene, benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P), indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene,
benzo[g,h,i]perylene, and dibenz[a,h]anthracene (Figure 2).
What products contain polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons?
Many useful products contain PAHs, such as mothballs, blacktop, and creosote wood
preservatives. They are also found at low concentrations in some special-purpose skin creams
and anti-dandruff shampoos that contain coal tars.
What are polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons used for?
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are formed by the incomplete combustion of coal, oil,
petrol, wood, tobacco, charbroiled meats, garbage, or other organic materials. Most of them have
no known use. A few are used in medicines, and to make dyes, plastics, and pesticides.
Are pesticides aromatic?
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and pesticides are among the most widespread
organic contaminants in aquatic environments. Because of their aromatic structure, PAHs and
pesticides have intrinsic fluorescence properties in the ultraviolet/blue spectral range.
Why are PAHs bad for the environment?
Several researchers found that crude oil contained PAHs that had toxic effects, such
as immunotoxicity, embryonic abnormalities, and cardiotoxicity, for wildlife including fish,
benthic organisms, and marine vertebrates. The most concerning toxicity of PAHs is their
carcinogenicity
19-Lecture.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
Pesticides. Nitrates. Nitrites. Nitroamines
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a class of chemicals that occur naturally in
coal, crude oil, and gasoline. They result from burning coal, oil, gas, wood, garbage, and
tobacco. PAHs can bind to or form small particles in the air. High heat when cooking meat and
other foods will form PAHs.
Pesticides are commonly used in modern food production to improve crop yields by
controlling weeds, insects, and other threats to produce. However, both synthetic and organic
biopesticides can have negative effects on health and the environment.
Adverse effects from these pesticides occur only above a certain safe level of exposure.
When people come into contact with large quantities of pesticide, the result may be acute
poisoning or long-term health effects that may include cancer and adverse effects on
reproduction
What food uses pesticides?
What crops are pesticides used on? Pesticides are used on fruits, vegetables, wheat, rice,
olives and canola pressed into oil,and on non-food crops such as cotton, grass, and flowers. The
OP pesticides malathion and chlorpyrifos are commonly used on all fruits, vegetables, and
wheat.
What foods have the most pesticides?
Kale, collard and mustard greens contained the largest number of different pesticides 103 types - followed by hot and bell peppers at 101. "Some of the USDA's tests show traces of
pesticides long since banned by the Environmental Protection Agency.
Do pesticides cause food poisoning?
Many people do not associate pesticides with food poisoning but these do contain toxins
which can cause a range of health problems which include food poisoning.
Acute effects can include pesticide poisoning, which may be a medical emergency.
Strong evidence exists for other, long-term negative health outcomes from pesticide exposure
including birth defects, fetal death, neurodevelopmental disorder, cancer, and neurologic illness
including Parkinson's disease.
What are 5 facts about pesticides?
10 Facts About Pesticides You Probably Didn't Know
Pesticides are classified according to the kind of pests they target. In addition, they are
formulated to attack specific physiological (or botanical) processes that kill the organism as
rapidly and effectively as possible.
Pesticides can be a very helpful part of any commercial pest control program. That said,
there are a lot of interesting things to learn about pesticides that you may not already know,
including:
1. Organophosphate pesticides were used as nerve agents in World War II
Organophosphate pesticides disrupt nervous system enzymes in insects and humans that
causes paralysis and death. In World War II, organophosphate pesticides were used as nerve
agents against the Germans, Italians and the Japanese.
2. Baking soda and canola oil are in biopesticide
Baking soda and canola oil are included in making a biopesticide, a type of pesticide
derived from certain plants, animals, minerals or bacteria.
3. Molluscicides contain desiccants that extract moisture from living tissue of slugs and
snails
Pesticides intended to kill slugs and snails only are called molluscicides and contain
desiccants that extract moisture from the living tissue of water-dependent animals.
4. Ovicides kill mite and insect eggs
Ovicides are unique pesticides that kill the eggs laid by mites and insects.
5. Insect growth regulators stop insects from mature normally
Insect growth regulators are a type of pesticide that disrupts life stages from pupa to adult
so that the insect is unable to mature normally.
6. Hydramethylnon is an effective, slow-acting pesticide used to inhibit cell metabolism
of ants and termites
Using a delayed toxin like hydramethylnon is necessary to control social insects because
they will return to the nest eventually and poison other members of the colony.
7. There are currently 300 products belonging to seven chemical classes that are
registered for use in bed bug control
According to the EPA, there are currently 300 products belonging to seven chemical
classes that are registered for use in bed bug control. Pyrethroids and pyrethrins are the most
commonly used insecticides for bed bug control and eradication.
8. All 50 states mandate experience and training requirements before an individual is
qualified to apply pesticides.
In New York state, certified pest technicians must have at least 40 hours of field
experience under the supervision of a qualified pesticide applicator before they can legally use
controlled pesticides.
9. Larvicides and adulticides are used to control mosquito larvae and adult mosquitoes
Pesticides used to control mosquito larvae and adult mosquitos are technically called
larvicides and adulticides.
10. The most commonly used insecticide is malathion
The most commonly used insecticide is malathion, an organophosphate pesticide
frequently included in state and federal mosquito control programs.
For more information about pesticides, pest infestation, or integrated pest management,
contact Assured Environments. One of our professional pest technicians will be ready to help
you with any of your pest control needs!
Nitrates are compounds made up of nitrogen and oxygen. Most come from plants, such as
leafy greens, beets and celery. They are also added to processed meats—in the form of sodium
nitrate or sodium nitrite—as a preservative, or to enhance flavor, color and texture.
Vegetables with nitrates are likely a net wellness win, and the nitrates in them may
actually benefit heart health. Nitrates in processed meat products may be detrimental to health,
however, and could increase the risk for certain cancers.
What are nitrates in food bad?
“Nitrates are harmless molecules that are naturally found in vegetables, and vegetables
rich in nitrates will provide a benefit to the body. Nitrates used to preserve processed meats, once
they are exposed to high heat, will turn into nitrosamines, which are harmful to the body,“ she
explained.
Cured or processed meats — bacon, sausage, hot dogs, and ham, as well as deli meats
such as chicken, turkey, roast beef, and salami — often contain added nitrates and nitrites. These
compounds prevent the growth of harmful bacteria, add a salty flavor, and make the meat appear
red or pink.
Nitrate performs physiological functions in various systemic activities, including blood
pressure reduction, platelet aggregation inhibition, and vessel protective effect - functions similar
to those of NO
Due to the formation of nitrosamine compounds, a large amount of which are considered
to be carcinogenic, cancer risk is the most serious adverse effect of nitrate and nitrite intake
Are high nitrates good?
High nitrate levels are especially harmful to fry and young fish and will negatively affect
their growth. Furthermore, the same conditions that cause elevated nitrate often cause decreased
oxygen levels, which further stress the fish.
Why avoid nitrates?
Nitrates on their own are not broken down by stomach acid. Instead, your gut biome can
break down nitrate into nitrite, which can cause health complications such as an increased risk of
cancer. Nitrate is an inorganic, water-soluble chemical.
Nitrates are a set of compounds that involve nitrogen and oxygen molecules. While they
are often associated with cured meats, green, leafy vegetables are actually much richer in
nitrates.
While the association of nitrate with cured meats causes some to worry about their
cancer-causing effects, other studies show that the nitrates found in vegetables may actually help
reduce the risk of cancer. Studies suggest that eating foods rich in natural nitrates can help
reduce your risk of a number of chronic health conditions, whereas eating foods high in added
nitrates can cause health risks.
Why You Should Avoid Nitrates
Nitrates on their own are not broken down by stomach acid. Instead, your gut biome can
break down nitrate into nitrite, which can cause health complications such as an increased risk of
cancer
Nitrate is an inorganic, water-soluble chemical. Your body makes around 62 milligrams
(mg) of nitrites a day, but the majority of nitrates come from your diet. On average a person
living in the United States consumes 75 to 100 mg of nitrates a day
Health risks of consuming added nitrates include:
Methemoglobinemia in infants (blue baby syndrome)
Increased risk of cancer
Complications during pregnancy
Foods With Added Nitrates
Many processed meats are high in nitrates. While these nitrates are useful for preserving
and improving the color of food, they are not good for your health. Many studies recommend
that vitamin C be added to cured meats high in nitrates to prevent the formation of harmful nitrite
compounds. These 4 foods are some of the worst offenders for added nitrates
Ham Ham is often the highest source of dietary nitrates. A single 100 g serving of cured
ham has as much as 900 mcg of nitrites. This is the source of the iconic pink color of cured hams
Bacon. Bacon has up to 380 mcg of nitrites per 100 g of weight. It’s also incredibly high
in 5.5. mg nitrites. Nitrates and nitrites tend to be pervasive in bacon production, which leads
some brands to label their packaging as nitrite-free. Nitrite-free bacon was tested as having
nearly double the amount of nitrates, at up to 680 mcg per 100 g
Deli Meat. Deli meat is another major source of harmful nitrates. Cured deli meats on
average have up to 500 mcg of nitrates per 100 g of meat, while uncured deli meats have about
300 mcg in the same amount of meat
Hot Dogs
Hot dogs are one of the most processed sources of meat on the market. The average hot
dog contains about 50 mcg of nitrites per 100 g of meat, which carries about 9 mg of nitrates
Healthy Sources of Nitrates. Nitrates can be converted into healthy nitric oxide, you don’t
need to cut out nitrates entirely. Instead, eat natural sources of nitrates, where the compound is
found with other antioxidants and vitamins. These 4 foods are rich in natural nitrates:
Spinach. Spinach is not just a great addition to salads, but also a great source of natural
dietary nitrates. A 100 g serving of fresh spinach contains anywhere from 24 to 387 mg of
nitrate. This amount varies wildly depending on growing conditions
Bok Choy. Out of the cabbage family, bok choy is the highest in nitrates. Depending on
its growing conditions, bok choy can contain anywhere from 103 to 309 mg of nitrates per 100 g
Lettuce. While lettuce isn’t always known for being rich in nutrients, it contains a
significant amount of natural nitrates. It contains between 13 and 267 mg of nitrates per 100 g
servings
Carrots. Leafy vegetables aren’t the only source of natural nitrates. If you’re looking for a
slightly earthier alternative, carrots contain anywhere from 92 to 195 mg of nitrates per 100 g
Are nitrites harmful?
The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classifies nitrates and nitrites
as “probably carcinogenic to humans” (Group 2A) under certain conditions (i.e. ingested nitrate
or nitrite under conditions that result in endogenous nitrosation) which could lead to the
formation of known carcinogens such as N- ...
What food is highest in nitrites?
Ham is often the highest source of dietary nitrates. A single 100 g serving of cured ham
has as much as 900 mcg of nitrites. This is the source of the iconic pink color of cured hams.
Bacon has up to 380 mcg of nitrites per 100 g of weight.
Nitrite and NO are important cell signaling molecules responsible for a number of
physiological effects, including regulation of blood pressure, sexual function, exercise
performance, energetics, and cognition.
Nitrite levels above 0.75 ppm in water can cause stress in fish and greater than 5 ppm can
be toxic. Nitrate levels from 0 – 40 ppm are generally safe for fish. Anything greater than 80 can
be toxic.
These nitrites in the blood cause changes in hemoglobin, or the molecules that help move
oxygen in the body. Nitrates can make it so that less oxygen is available for the body to function
properly.
The three compounds measured, were detected in all the samples. The nitrates and nitrites
levels were significantly higher in the yolk than in the albumen (P<0.05). However, there was no
significant correlation observed between the levels of nitrosamines and its precursors in the eggs
Nitrates and nitrites are widespread in the environment and occur naturally in foods of
plant origin as a part of the nitrogen cycle. Additionally, these compounds are used as additives
to improve food quality and protect against microbial contamination and chemical changes.
Some examples of nitrite salts are ammonium nitrite, calcium nitrite, sodium nitrite, and
potassium nitrate.
Is high nitrite good?
Nitrites are pretty bad news. So, in a stocked tank, the level should read 0 ppm (parts per
million). The bacteria in an established tank should exist in high enough numbers to break down
nitrites the moment they are produced – leading to a zero reading when tested.
What pH is nitrite toxicity?
the bacteria that transform nitrite to nitrate function poorly at these temperatures and
prefer a pH range of 7.5–8.6 with at least 1 mg L−1 dissolved oxygen. Therefore, increased nitrite
toxicity is reported in conditions of lower pH and cool temperature in several teleosts and
crustaceans
What level of nitrite is safe for humans?
The drinking water standard for nitrates in water is 10.0 mg/L and nitrites is 1.0 mg/L. If
your final result for nitrate is more than (>) 10.0 mg/L, the level is over the drinking water
standard, and the Health Department recommends treating your wate
Where do nitrites come from?
Nitrites are a salt or ester anion of nitrous acid, which can be naturally or artificially
occurring in groundwater. Nitrites come from fertilizers through run-off water, sewage, and
mineral deposits. Nitrite is used in food production for the curing of meat products due to it
inhibiting the growth of bacteria.
Which is more harmful nitrite or nitrate?
Nitrite is even more harmful and should also be kept at 0 ppm, as it suppresses a fish's
ability to carry oxygen in its bloodstream. Even slight amounts can stress fish. Large amounts
can cause them to suffocate.
Is nitrite toxic to bacteria?
Anaerobic ammonium oxidizing bacteria (anammox) can be severely inhibited by one of
its main substrates, nitrite (NO2(-)). At present, there is limited information on the processes by
which anammox bacteria are able to tolerate toxic NO2(-).
Does milk have nitrites?
Cow's milk (2% milkfat) samples had 0.0002 mg/100 mL nitrite and 0.23 mg/100 mL
nitrate (or 0.04 μM nitrite and 37.45 μM nitrate), and the organic cow's milk (2% milkfat)
sample had 0.0003 mg/100 mL nitrite and 0.16 mg/100 mL nitrate (or 0.07 μM nitrite and 25.38
μM nitrate).
What foods are high in nitrite avoid?
Cured or processed meats — bacon, sausage, hot dogs, and ham, as well as deli meats
such as chicken, turkey, roast beef, and salami — often contain added nitrates and nitrites. These
compounds prevent the growth of harmful bacteria, add a salty flavor, and make the meat appear
red or pink.
What are the disadvantages of nitrites?
Disadvantages are that nitrite itself is toxic in high concentrations and that during heating
of the products carcinogenic nitrosamines might be formed. Furthermore it is a food additive that
is required to be labeled.
N-nitrosamines are formed by a reaction between nitrites and certain secondary and
tertiary amines. N-nitrosamines and/or their precursors can be found in certain foods such
as processed meats, fish and cheese. They have also been detected in some alcoholic beverages.
Which foods contain nitrosamines?
They have been found in several types of foodstuffs such as cured meat products,
processed fish, cocoa, beer and other alcoholic beverages. Nitrosamines may also be present in a
variety of other foods such as cooked meat, processed vegetables, cereals, milk and dairy
products, or fermented, pickled and spiced foods.
Where is nitrosamines mostly found?
Nitrosamines and/or their precursors can be found in diverse consumer products such
as processed meats, alcoholic beverages, cosmetics, and cigarette smoke. Nitrosamines can also
be formed in the mouth or stomach if the food contains nitrosamine precursors.
What does nitrosamines do to your body?
Some nitrosamines may increase the risk of cancer if people are exposed to them above
acceptable levels and over long periods of time. People taking drugs that contain NDMA at or
below the acceptable intake limits every day for 70 years are not expected to have an increased
risk of cancer.
How do you avoid nitrosamines in your diet?
Eat a diet high in antioxidants. Vitamin C and certain other vitamins can reduce the
conversion of nitrates and nitrites to nitrosamines.
Does coffee have nitrosamines?
Since the 1970s coffee consumption has been considered a risk factor for developing
bladder cancer, and various potentially harmful components such as caffeine, polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons, and nitrosamines have been cited as possible causative agents.
Does vitamin C prevent nitrosamines?
Today foods preserved with nitrites always have vitamin C, or a closely related
compound erythorbic acid, added to prevent nitrosamine formation.
Does beer contain nitrosamines?
Nitrosamines generated during malt production will pass into beer. Examples of
maximum acceptable levels of nitrosamines in beer are 5 µg/kg in the United States, 0.5 µg/kg in
Italy, Switzerland and Germany and 2-15 µg/kg in Russia.
Are nitrosamines in condoms?
Nitrosamines are present in condoms because it helps the latex keep its elasticity. It can
be found in tons of things that feature rubber, including baby bottle nipples, balloons, and latex
gloves.
How do you remove nitrosamines?
The biological activated carbon (BAC) process was also effective at removing
nitrosamines, most of which were adsorbed onto the carbon. A small fraction (<10%) of
nitrosamines were removed through biodegradation.
Does fish contain nitrosamines?
Fish contains methylamines, which are precursors of N-nitrosamines. Nitrosamines can
act as potent carcinogens in a wide variety of animal species, and there is no reason to assume
that humans are resistant.
What meats contain nitrosamines?
The following animal food contains a lot of nitrosamines:

Bacon,

Sausages.

Pâtés.

Cooked meat.

Frankfurters.

Cooked ham.

Smoked meat.

Smoked salmon.
20 - Lecture.
Plant growth regulators
The five primary plant growth regulators are auxins, cytokinins, gibberellins, abscisic
acid and ethylene. Each plant growth regulator functions in different ways. For instance, Auxins
induce calli. Cytokinins stimulate cell division.
There are five groups of plant-growth-regulating compounds: auxin, gibberellin (GA),
cytokinin, ethylene, and abscisic acid (ABA).
Ethylene is the most widely used plant growth regulator as it helps in regulating many
physiological processes. Induce flowering in the mango tree. Promotes sprouting of potato
tubers. Breaks the dormancy of seeds and buds.
What are the 5 plant hormones and their functions?

Auxins - promotes cell growth and differentiation, especially on the tips of plants.
...




Cytokinin - promotes cell division and lateral growth in plants. ...
Gibberellins - helps in breaking dormancy in seeds and buds. ...
Abscisic acid - promotes dormancy in seeds and buds. ...
Ethylene - promotes fruit ripening.
Why are plant growth regulators used?
What is a plant growth regulator? Plant growth regulators (PGRs) are chemicals used to
modify plant growth such as increasing branching, suppressing shoot growth, increasing return
bloom, removing excess fruit, or altering fruit maturity.
How important is plant growth regulator?
Plant growth regulators are important because they modify and regulate plant growth by
altering certain aspects of plant development such as fruit ripening, plant height, seed
development, flowering, etc. Plant growth regulators play a role in nature as well as in
biotechnology.
What are the 7 plant hormones?
Name
a
few
phytohormones
The five major phytohormones are – auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, ethylene and abscisic acid.
There are also other phytohormones that affect the plant's physiological processes like
brassinosteroids, salicylates, jasmonates, strigolactones, etc.
What are the 7 classes of plant hormones?
According to structural and chemical diversity, plant hormones are grouped into several
classes, including auxins, cytokinins (CKs), abscisic acid (ABA), gibberellins (GAs), ethylene,
jasmonic acid (JA), salicylic acid (SA), brassinosteroids (BRs), and strigolactones (SLs).
21 - Lecture.
Food quality.
Regulation of the quality of food products
Food quality control is a critical process in the food industry. Problems involving quality
can lead to dissatisfied customers, lost profits, and even product recalls. That’s why it’s
important to know the essential food quality control procedures, as they guide your food business
to food safety and quality.
This article will discuss six essential procedures that all food businesses should comply
with. By following these procedures, you can ensure that your products meet or exceed the
quality standards of your industry!
Goals of Food Quality Control
Quality control is an essential requirement in any business sector, but it is especially
critical in the food industry. The goals of food quality control are to ensure that food products are
safe and fit for human consumption, meet the requirements of customers or regulations, and are
consistently high in quality.
Given that food products directly impact the health and wellness of consumers,
companies must review and document the quality status of products throughout all stages of
production.
Essential Characteristics of a Food Quality Control System
Ensuring quality isn’t a single step during production. Instead, it’s implanted into every
step of the process, including development, production, and distribution.
High-quality products are created using carefully and meticulously designed procedures
that considers potential problems to occur at any stage of production. There are both active and
reactive methods to ensure the products meet certain quality standards.
Proactive Quality Control
Also known as ‘Preventive Quality Control,’ this food quality measure helps prevent any
production anomalies. Its coverage can include anything from machine and equipment
inspections, worker retraining, use of sign-off work instructions, and regular checking of tools
and their condition.
While catching potential flaws is the goal of food quality control, reducing the number of
defects and improving overall product quality starts with having proactive solutions.
Reactive Quality Control
Defects are bound to happen on any production line. That’s why businesses need to have
a way to quickly identify and correct these issues before they result in customer complaints or
cause long-term damage to the product.
This involves conducting regular audits, maintaining up-to-date customer feedback
records, and having a system to track and correct defects. Data collected from these issues can
then be used for future applications, which is a specific improvement on the proactive quality
control systems.
Quality Control and Compliance in the Food Industry
Proactive and reactive measures are based on specific requirements of various regulatory
bodies in the food industry. The two most common sets of requirements are the GMP (Good
Manufacturing Practices) system and the HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point).
The guidelines made by organizations such as the FDA (Food and Drug Administration)
serve as guidance for productions through how they should design their procedures and what
data points they must gather and report.
Top 6 Food Quality Control Procedures
Now that we’ve discussed the goals and essential characteristics of a quality control
system, let’s take a look at the top eight quality control procedures that are commonly used in the
food industry:
Ingredient Specifications
Every production process starts with sourcing the right raw materials. The quality of the
finished product is only as good as the ingredients that are used. That’s why it’s critical to have a
set of specifications for each ingredient used in production.
These specifications should include purity, identity, moisture content, and more. Also,
understanding where each ingredient batch was sourced and in what condition are also the right
first steps to achieving good quality control.
Approved Supplier List
In addition to ingredient specifications, it’s also important that each raw material for
producing food has an approved supplier list. This list should be reviewed and updated regularly.
The list should include information such as the ingredient name, supplier name, address,
and code number. It’s the responsibility of the Procurement team to work with Quality
Assurance to develop, review, and update this approved supplier list.
Incoming Goods Inspection
Once the raw materials are sourced and arrive at the manufacturing facility, they must
undergo an inspection process. This helps to ensure that the materials meet the required
specifications.
The inspection should include a visual examination of the goods and tests for things like
moisture content, pH levels, and more. Any raw material that doesn’t meet the specification
should be returned to the supplier or quarantined until a decision is made.
Production Formulation
After the raw materials are approved, the Production team will formulate the finished
product. This is done by following production instructions that include ingredients,
recommended weights, batch size, and process time.
These instructions must be detailed and followed exactly to maintain product consistency.
The Production team should also document everything they do during the manufacturing
process.
Manufacturing Procedures
Companies should have a set of standard operating procedures (SOPs) for each step of
the manufacturing process. These SOPs should be followed exactly to ensure product quality.
The SOPs should include process flow diagrams, critical control points, and more. Also,
companies must document every detail of how their product is made. These details should
include:

How to transport and store specific ingredients

The ideal conditions the facility should maintain

The correct order of adding ingredients

The tools to use

A list of each member in the production team and what their roles entail
In-Process Records
In-process records are the most crucial procedure on this list. This is because it’s the only
way to track and document what’s happening during production.
In-process records help to identify any issues that may arise during production. They also
help to ensure that the finished product meets all the required specifications.
Some of the things that require documentation in in-process records include:

Batch size

Process time

Incoming and outgoing product weights

Product appearance

pH levels

Moisture content

And more.
Other Food Quality Control Procedures
Other food quality control procedures include Label Specifications, Product Standards,
Cleaning, Sanitizing Programs, CCP (Critical Control Point), Shipping and Warehousing, and
Recall Programs.
22 - Lecture.
Chemical, epidemic and radiation pollution of food raw materials and food
products. Their relation to hygienic normative safety
Chemical contaminants are substances that are unintentionally present in food or feed.
These substances may be present in food as a result of various stages of its production,
processing or transport. They might also result from environmental contamination. Chemical
contaminants may be harmful to humans and animals
What are the effects of chemical contamination in food?
Chemical contamination can lead to acute poisoning or long-term diseases, such as
cancer. Many foodborne diseases may lead to long-lasting disability and death.
How might a chemical incident such as using the wrong product dilution or cleaning
method be a potential food contamination issue?
Cleaning chemicals, common additives, and preservatives can come in contact with food
through cross - contamination and result in foodborne illnesses. Chemical contaminants can also
be sometimes found as drinking water contaminants, which pose a significant threat to your food
business.
What 4 elements make up the food poisoning chain?
To grow, bacteria need warmth, moisture, food and time, these four elements are known
as the Food Poisoning Chain, to protect food, and your customers, a link of the chain must be
broken. Your food safety management system should help you to do this.
How can we prevent chemical contamination in food?
How to prevent chemical contamination
1.
always label and store chemicals separately from food.
2.
use the appropriate chemical for the job you're doing.
3.
always follow the chemical manufacturer's instructions with regards to dilution,
contact time and water temperature.
What are the three main causes of food contamination?
There are three ways that food can be contaminated:

biological hazards (microorganisms) including bacteria, fungi, yeasts, mould and
viruses.

chemical hazards. including cleaning chemicals or foods with naturally occurring
toxins, such as green potatoes.

physical hazards.
What are 5 chemical contaminants in food?
Chemical contaminants

mycotoxins.

heavy metals - lead and mercury.

organic pollutants - dioxins.

acrylamide which may result from food being processed.
What are the most common chemical hazards in food?
Chemical hazards are harmful substances such as pesticides, machine oils, cleansers and
cleaning solutions, sanitizers, dissolved metals and an excessive amount of a food additive.
What are the risk factors in raw food items contamination?
According the Center for Disease Control (CDC) the cause of most foodborne illnesses
can be attributed to one of the following; unsafe food source, time/temperature abuse, failing to
cook food correctly, practicing poor personal hygiene, and using contaminate equipment.
What are the risks of chemical hazards?
Chemical hazards and toxic substances pose a wide range of health hazards (such
as irritation, sensitization, and carcinogenicity) and physical hazards (such as flammability,
corrosion, and explosibility).
Which could lead to the chemical contamination of food?
The origins of chemical contaminants are various from the field to the plate, namely soil,
environment, disinfection by-products, personal care products, air, water, and packaging
material.
23- Lecture.
Microbiological indicator of raw materials and food products
What are indicators in food microbiology?
Microbiological indicator organisms can be used to monitor hygienic conditions in food
production. The presence of specific bacteria, yeasts or molds is an indicator of poor hygiene and
a potential microbiological contamination.
What are microbiological indicators?
Indicator organisms are microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses in water bodies,
which are utilized as a surrogate to evaluate the presence of pathogens in that environment.
These microorganisms are preferred to be nonpathogen, have no or minimal growth in water, and
reliably detectable at low concentrations.
What is the microbiological analysis of raw food?
The microbiological analysis of food is part of food safety management and conformity
tests that define microbiological criteria or assess the performance of control strategies based on
the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point. For microbiological testing of foods, rapid and
conventional methods can be used.
What is a microbiological test of food products?
Microbiological analysis of food products is the use of biological, biochemical, molecular
or chemical methods for the detection, identification or enumeration of microorganisms in a
material (e.g. food, drink, environmental or clinical sample). It is often applied to disease causing
and spoilage microorganisms.
What are the indicators of food production?
Indicators definitions

PRODUCTION.

Production quantity. Production includes the quantities of the commodity sold in
the market (marketed production) and the quantities consumed or used by the producers (autoconsumption). ...

Production value. ...

Yield. ...

Area Harvested. ...

Area sown. ...

Seeds quantity. ...

FOOD AVAILABILITY.

What are the indicators of food product quality?

The general indicators for quality are freshness, free from unwanted material, free
from spoiled material, uniform size and weight, however the specific indicators for quality will
be varying depending upon the end use. Considering the quality parameters, specifications for
various food materials have been developed.
What is an example of a microbial indicator?
The four indicators most commonly used today by both volunteer and professional
monitors—total coliforms, fecal coliforms, E. coli, and enterococci—are bacteria that are
normally prevalent in the intestines and feces of warm-blooded animals, including wildlife, farm
animals, pets, and humans.
24 - Lecture.
Foodborne infections
Foodborne illness is caused by consuming contaminated foods or beverages. Many
different disease-causing microbes or pathogens can contaminate foods, so there are many
different types of foodborne illnesses. Most foodborne diseases are infections caused by a variety
of bacteria, viruses, and parasites.
What are examples of food infections?
Botulism, Brucellosis, Campylobacter enteritis, Escherichia coli, Hepatitis A, Listeriosis,
Salmonellosis, Shigellosis, Toxoplasmosis, Viral gastroenteritis, Taeniasis and Trichinosis are
examples of foodborne diseases.
What is the main cause of foodborne infection?
The top 10 causes of foodborne illness are the following:

Improper cooling.

Advance preparation.

Infected person.

Inadequate reheating for hot holding.

Improper hot holding.

Contaminated raw food or ingredient.

Unsafe source.

Use of leftovers.
What is the most common foodborne infection?
According to CDC estimates, the most common foodborne illnesses are caused
by norovirus, Salmonella, Clostridium perfringens, Campylobacter, and Staphylococcus aureus.
What are the five 5 major foodborne illnesses?
The top five germs that cause foodborne illness in the United States are:

Norovirus.

Salmonella.

Clostridium perfringens.

Campylobacter.

Staphylococcus aureus (Staph)
What are the 4 types of infections?
What are the types of infectious diseases? Infectious diseases can be viral, bacterial,
parasitic or fungal infections.
What are five examples of infection?
Quick Links

Campylobacter Infection.

Hepatitis A.

Hepatitis B.

Hepatitis C.

Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19)

Influenza (Flu)

Measles.

Meningococcal Disease.
25- Lecture.
Methods of storage of goods are based on different types and methods of
production.
What are the methods of food storage?
Among the oldest methods of preservation are drying, refrigeration, and fermentation.
Modern methods include canning, pasteurization, freezing, irradiation, and the addition of
chemicals
Drying is perhaps the oldest method used to store food. Drying fish, meat, fruits, and
vegetables in the sun or over a fire or by ventilation with heated air is still used to prolong
storage life. Both the harvested food and the spoilage organism (microbe or insect) need water to
live.
What are the 4 types of food storage?
Generally speaking, there are four main types of food storage to mix-and-match in your
supply: dry staples, freeze dried, dehydrated and canned. Each has pros and cons, but here are
the basics. Dry staples are the base necessities of your food storage.
What are the different types of food storage and their uses?
There are three types of food storage options: dry storage refers to the storing of items
which don't require a climate controlled environment; refrigerated storage is defined as foods
that require storage at a cool temperature, but not a freezing temperature; and frozen food
storage, which are foods that are required
What is basic food storage?
Things like rice, beans, wheat, powdered milk, and sugar. These are considered basic
food storage items and they have a LONG shelf life – 20 to 30 years in most cases. Not only do
we store them for everyday eats, but for use in an emergency.
As ancient cultures were adapting, they discovered techniques that have now become
basic methods of food preservation.
1.
Drying
The earliest form of curing meat was dehydration using the sun or wind. Dehydration dates back
to the Middle East and oriental cultures that dried foods in the hot sun as early as 12,000 B.C. In
regions without enough sunlight or wind, “still houses” were built and heated using fire to dry
fruits, vegetables, and herbs.
2.
Curing
As a form of dehydration, early cultures used salt to help dry out foods. The curing of meats and
seafood not only preserves the taste and texture but also prevents the growth of harmful
pathogens that need moisture to survive.
3.
Freezing
In climates that experience freezing temperatures, freezing was an obvious method of
preservation. Food was buried underground or in the snow for preservation throughout the
winter. This method led to the construction of “icehouses” or “iceboxes” for storage until the
1800’s when artificial refrigeration was invented.
4.
Fermenting
A valuable method of preservation, fermentation prevents food from spoiling by using
microorganisms to destroy harmful pathogens. The production of acid or alcohol during
fermentation creates vitamins making fermented foods more nutritious and flavorful.
5.
Pickling
A form of fermentation, pickling preserves foods in vinegar produced by starches or sugars.
Pickling may have originated when food was placed in soured wine or beer to preserve it. It’s
believed Indians were the first people in Asia to make cucumber pickles more than 3,000 years
ago.
6.
Sugaring
Known to the earliest cultures, sugaring preserves food in honey or sugar. The sugar not only
sweetens but draws out water from harmful pathogens, which dehydrates and destroys them. The
ancient Greeks and Romans mastered the technique of using heated sugar and fruit pectin which
we have come to know as jams, jellies, and preserves.
7.
Canning
Dating back to the 1790s, canning is the newest method of food preservation which involves the
heating and cooling of food in jars or cans. Heating destroys harmful pathogens, while cooling
creates a vacuum seal to prevent contamination and deterioration.
Today, most food is preserved and processed commercially. To ensure food preservation
is carried out according to food safety standards, data loggers are often implemented into
HACCP plans. Data loggers provide validation that specific time and temperature thresholds, or
critical control points, were reached.
26- Lecture.
System of factors and conditions determining the level of food safety
Food concentrates
What the Study Described

Washing hands.

Preventing contamination of food.

Using gloves.

Cooking food to the right temperature.

Keeping heated food hot.

Keeping cooled food cold.

Reheating food to the right temperature.
Food safety management systems are based on three critical components:
HACCP;
PRPs; and
Other components needed to ensure a complete food safety management system.
Traditionally PRPs were all of the parts of a food safety system that was not HACCP.
With the advent of the food safety management systems (FSMS), PRPs are limited to creating
and maintaining the environment for the safe production of food.
The HACCP plan has several unique features:
Product specificity;
Process specificity; and
If a critical limit is exceeded it is deemed that all of the product lot is potentially not safe.
In addition, the HACCP plan is designed to reduce to an acceptable level or eliminate
specific food safety hazards. This allows food safety practitioners to use the hazard analysis
principles to develop and validate a specific strategy to control a manufacturing process, thus
reducing the risk of producing non-safe foods.
In some areas of the world, there is a desire to develop and use general HACCP plans.
General HACCP plans can provide useful guidance, however, the guidance document should
identify:
The specific hazard or hazards to be controlled;
The expected level of hazard reduction or prevention to be achieved;
The critical operational parameters or conditions necessary for the safe production of the
food;
The specific processing steps necessary to achieve the specified reduction or prevention
of the hazard; and
The process to be used to monitor the manufacturing process.
A process authority should evaluate the generic HACCP plan and determine if the
documents are sufficiently equivalent to the site’s manufacturing process and the hazards
identified for that site. In addition, a process authority needs to be available to conduct
reassessment and determine if there is need to revalidate the HACCP plan.
The PRP program is designed to simplify the HACCP plan. It does this by creating and
maintaining an environment for the safe production of the food product. There are several
features that distinguish PRPs:
PRPs can be applied across processing lines and product lines.
Momentary loss of control of a PRP typically does not create a food safety incident.
Breakdown of a PRP may lead to a food safety incident.
It is difficult to validate many PRPs.
It is difficult to monitor many PRPs in real time.
All PRPs lend themselves to verification activities.
Some PRPs may not lend themselves to a strict definition of validation because it is
difficult to create a true worst case scenario or worse case scenarios may change because of
changing environmental conditions. For example, one can ask the question, ‘How do I validate a
pest control program?’. To answer this question, one should define what conditions would cause
the greatest pest pressures on the plant. Next, one would have to determine if those conditions
can be reproduced during a validation study. A more effective method to implement a pest
control process would be to develop a pest control process based on known good practices. Then
a verification plan can be implemented to demonstrate that the PRP remains in control. If there is
an incidence where the PRP is not in control, actions can be taken to make the PRP more robust.
In addition, the site can take actions to continually improve the PRP.
Assessment of food safety management systems is a verification activity with the
objective of evaluating the compliance with set standards. While it cannot be relied upon for
ensuring safety, it is important for verifying that stakeholders comply with safety and regulatory
requirements.
Assessment can be carried out by authorities or by the private sector itself. It can be
comprehensive and cover the assessment of the entire food safety management system, or be
partial and limited to some elements of the food safety management system, operations or
products. This will depend on the purpose of the assessment. The validity of the assessment
depends on a number of factors, in particular the competence of assessors. The frequency and
scope must be based on the level of risk presented by the operation. Among different factors, the
previous records of compliance are important criteria to be considered.
27 - Lecture.
Metabolism of foreign compounds
Certification of food products and raw materials.
Foreign compounds in foods include heterocyclic amines, nitrosamines, polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons, azo dyes, α,β-unsaturated aldehydes and mycotoxin. Drugs are chemical
substances for a living organism to affect how the body works.
Phase II reactions consist of adding hydrophilic groups to the original molecule, a toxic
intermediate or a nontoxic metabolite formed in phase I, that requires further transformation to
increase its polarity. These reactions include conjugation reactions, glucuronidation, acetylation,
and sulfation.
Metabolites are the chemical compounds which take part in the process of metabolism.
Molecular compounds are held together by covalent bonds; ionic compounds are held
together by ionic bonds; intermetallic compounds are held together by metallic bonds;
coordination complexes are held together by coordinate covalent bonds.
What are 5 examples of compounds?

Sugar (sucrose - C12H22O11)




Table salt (sodium chloride - NaCl)
Water (H2O)
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda - NaHCO3)
What are the 2 types of reactions in metabolism?
Anabolism and catabolism
Two types of metabolic reactions take place in the cell: 'building up' (anabolism) and
'breaking down' (catabolism).
What is metabolism examples?
Metabolic reactions may be categorized as catabolic – the breaking down of compounds
(for example, of glucose to pyruvate by cellular respiration); or anabolic – the building up
(synthesis) of compounds (such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids).
What is a raw material certificate?
Material certification is the ID of a particular material heat and production batch. It
indicates its provenance, its quality and can offer an insight into material performance under real
life service conditions.
What is ISO certification for food products?
ISO 22000 is a certifiable standard that sets out the overall requirements for a food safety
management system. It defines the steps an organization must take to demonstrate its ability to
control food safety hazards and ensure that food is safe for human consumption.
What is the certificate of analysis of raw materials?
The COA conveys information from a material supplier to a material user about the
identity, quality, and purity of that specific material. It is very important for a material supplier to
show its customer a trustworthy COA so that the customer can understand exactly what type of
product they receive.
What is ISO 22000 certification?
The ISO 22000 - food safety management standard provides specific requirements for a
food safety management system that will enhance your ability to consistently deliver products
and services that meet customer, as well as statutory and regulatory demands.
What is MTC certificate?
A Material Test Certificate (MTC) is a quality assurance document used in the metals
industry that acts as a certified record of a material's chemical and physical properties and states
a product complies with specific international standards.
What is raw material in food industry?
Food manufacturers use raw materials, such as whole and milled grains, fruits,
vegetables, nuts, meats, oils, and sugars, to create ready to eat or prepare food products for
distribution to wholesalers, distributors, and retailers.
What is ISO 9001 in food industry?
ISO 9001 is the international standard that provides a framework for implementing
Quality Management Systems (QMS) in an organization. Thus, ISO 9001 ensures that the quality
of your products or services meets the customer's expectations, which will be very much
beneficial for your company's growth.
28- Lecture.
Labeling of food products.
Labeling of food products. Basic requirements for labeling products
Food labels carry useful information to help you make informed choices about what you
and your family eat and drink. Most packaged foods are required to have a label with this
information, but the information required depends on the food type.
Why is labeling food products important?
FAO promotes Food Labelling as an effective tool to protect consumer health in terms of
food safety and nutrition. Food labels convey information about the product's identity and
contents, and on how to handle, prepare and consume it safely.
How do you label food?
Food Product Labeling and Packaging 101
1.
Statement of identity, or name of the food.
2.
Net quantity of contents, or amount of product.
3.
Nutrition Facts Label.
4.
Ingredient Statement.
5.
Allergen Declaration.
6.
Name and address of the manufacturer, packer, or distributor.
Why is Labelling important?
Labelling is an important part of the marketing of a product. Labelling is essential as it
helps to grab the attention of a customer It can be combined with packaging and can be used by
marketers to encourage potential buyers to purchase the product. Packaging is also used for
convenience and information transmission.
There are four major types of labels that companies and small businesses are using for
their products and operations: brand labels, informative labels, descriptive labels, and grade
labels.
When it comes to reading food labels, what's most important?

Serving size. Check to see how many servings the package contains. ...

Fiber. Eat at least 5-10 grams of viscous fiber each day. ...

Protein. ...

Calories. ...

Carbohydrates. ...

Total fat. ...

Saturated fat. ...

Trans fat.
Labelling or using a label is describing someone or something in a word or short phrase.
For example, the label "criminal" may be used to describe someone who has broken a law.
Labelling theory is a theory in sociology which ascribes labelling of people to control and
identification of deviant behaviour.
Additionally, there are some really amazing benefits of reading food labels:

Food labels provide information that's vital for your diet.

It helps you plan your diet well if you are suffering from chronic conditions.

It can help you identify 'sugar' content.

It helps you understand the calories per serving well.
Product labels should have the following elements:
1.
Product name. The product name should be one of the most visible aspects of the
product label.
2.
Brand logo. ...
3.
Graphics and other design elements. ...
4.
Product description. ...
5.
Tracking information. ...
6.
Instructions for use. ...
7.
Contact information.
What are Labelling requirements?
Name and address of the manufacturer, packer, or distributor; Product description,
including contents, materials, and the amount of the product included. You may also include a
serial number or a batch number for tracking purposes; Compliance marks for specific regulatory
standards.
29 Lecture
Falsification and identification of food products.
Identification food products
1. The concept and methods of identification of food products. 3
2. Falsification of food products, concept and types .. 11
3. Analysis of methods for detecting the most counterfeit products. fifteen
Identification - this is an identification, establishing the coincidence of something with
something. In relation to a product, identification should be understood as establishing the
conformity of the name of the product indicated on the label or in the accompanying documents
with the requirements for it. Carrying out qualitative identification is a very complex, capacious,
lengthy and often expensive process.
Identification is a tool for determining falsification.
Falsification is a fake, substitution in the process of manufacturing products of a certain
quality by another, less valuable, not corresponding to its name, and its sale for selfish purposes.
The main methodological principle of establishing falsification is the depth of research on
food products that are similar in properties. The depth of research in these cases is due to the fact
that many standard methods for testing food products do not allow solving the problem.
Purpose of identification - identification and confirmation of the authenticity of a specific
type and name of the goods, as well as compliance with certain requirements or information
about it indicated on the label and (or) in the shipping documents.
To achieve these goals, further development is needed. theoretical foundations and
practical actions to identify goods. That's why identification tasks are:
Definition of basic concepts, structure, norms and rules in the field of product
identification;
Development of fundamental criteria suitable for the purposes of identifying
homogeneous groups, specific types and names of goods;
Research of consumer properties of goods and indicators characterizing them to identify
the most reliable identification criteria;
Improvement of standards, specifications and other normative documentation by
including quality indicators for identification purposes;
Development of methods for identifying goods, primarily express methods that allow a
high degree reliability to determine the assortment of goods. [4, pp. 135 – 136]
Identification functions:
1) pointing- identifying the presented sample of goods with a specific name, variety,
brand, type, with a consignment;
2) informational- bringing the necessary information to the subjects of market relations;
3) confirming compliance of the product assortment with the information indicated on the
label and (or) in the shipping documents, that is, the authenticity of the product;
4) manager- since identification is one of the elements of the product quality system.
The control function of identification is regulated by the international standards ISO 9001
- ISO 9003 "Quality Systems". These standards were introduced in Russia without changes:
GOST R ISO 9001 - GOST R ISO 9003. Therefore, consideration of identification as one of the
elements of the quality system is of great interest.
Requirements for product quality that meet the needs of consumers are established in
standards and specifications.
But these documents do not guarantee that during the design, development, production,
storage and sale of goods, the actually achieved level of quality will meet the established
requirements. As a result, it became necessary to develop standards that complement the
requirements for products and prevent the occurrence of inconsistencies at different stages of the
technological cycle by regulating the elements of the quality system.
Identification objects - foodstuffs. Their conformity assessment is very important in the
field of trade and with the consumer who purchases the goods.
Subjects carrying out the identification of goods - all market participants:
Manufacturer - at the stage of acceptance of raw materials, semi-finished products, and
when selling finished products;
The seller is at the stages of concluding purchase and sale agreements, accepting goods
and preparing them for sale.
The consumer also identifies the purchased product, most often doing it unconsciously
and without sufficient qualifications, focusing only on his own everyday experience and
knowledge.
Means of identification of goods - normative and technical documents (standards,
specifications, rules, etc.) regulating quality indicators that can be used for identification
purposes, as well as shipping documents (waybills, certificates, quality certificates, operation
manuals, passports, etc.). P.). The most important means of food identification is labeling, which
contains information suitable for identification purposes.
The purpose of these tools is to regulate the identification criteria. To a greater extent,
regulatory documents should meet this requirement.
Identification criteria - these are the characteristics of the goods, allowing to identify the
name of the presented goods with the name indicated on the labels and (or) in the regulatory,
shipping and accompanying documents.
The standards, specifications, rules for the certification of food products and food raw
materials provide for three groups of indicators: organoleptic, physico-chemical,
microbiological.
For
identification
purposes,
only organoleptic and physical
and
chemical
indicators characterizing the consumer properties of the goods. Microbiological indicators refer
to safety indicators that depend on external influences and contamination with microflora. Food
products serve as a nutrient medium for microorganisms; therefore, contamination by
microorganisms and the presence of mycotoxins produced by them cannot be identification
criteria.
Unsuitable as identification criteria and many physico-chemical safety indicators
determined during certification tests. They only indirectly testify to the contamination of raw
materials, food products and are unusual for environmentally friendly products (or their content
is negligible). This applies to such safety indicators as toxic trace elements, mycotoxins,
radionuclides, antibiotics, hormonal drugs, nitrates, etc.
The most suitable for identification purposes are organoleptic and individual physicochemical indicators.
General organoleptic characteristics include:
Appearance;
Taste and smell;
Consistency.
Appearance is a complex indicator, including a number of single ones: shape, color,
surface condition. For some food products, color (color) is isolated as an independent single
indicator. Other general organoleptic indicators are single.
Appearance - not only the most accessible and widespread, but also one of the most
significant identification criteria. It is from this indicator that manufacturers, sellers and
consumers begin identification, and if a discrepancy is found, the definition of other criteria is
inappropriate. However, appearance as an identification criterion does not have a sufficient
degree of reliability, since falsification of goods is most often carried out by falsifying external
signs. For example, only by appearance it is impossible to identify coffee, tea, alcoholic
beverages, butter, since the substitutes used most often have an appearance that is difficult to
distinguish from the genuine product.
Taste and smell- the most characteristic indicators of food products, but they are not a
reliable criterion, since they can also be falsified. So, with some methods of falsifying wines
(“sugar” or “raisin” wine), it is difficult for an ordinary consumer to detect crafts by taste and
smell.
Consistency– one of the possible identification criteria, but also not reliable.
When falsifying some products, the consistency does not change, for example, when
diluting alcoholic, non-alcoholic drinks, milk, animal butter. In some cases, counterfeiters seek
to make the consistency of the substitute similar to the genuine product.
Specific organoleptic indicators include:
Internal structure;
Transparency;
The ratio of solid and liquid fractions.
These indicators are also used for identification purposes.
Internal structure has many synonyms: the state of the crumb (for bakery products), the
type of minced meat on the cut (for sausages), the pattern (for cheeses), the view on the break
(marmalade). For example, the state of the bread crumb is a complex indicator, which is
characterized by the color of the crumb, its porosity, elasticity, lack of unmixed and hardened.
At the same time, the pattern of cheese, the type of minced meat on the section of
sausages and others are single indicators.
The indicator of the internal structure is one of the most significant, but not sufficiently
reliable. Other specific indicators also have this disadvantage.
Thus, organoleptic indicators are the most accessible, simple, but not reliable enough.
Therefore, they cannot be the only identification criteria and must be supplemented by physical
and chemical indicators, which are distinguished by a greater degree of reliability and
objectivity. In contrast to organoleptic, physical and chemical indicators should be used
selectively for identification.
30 –Lecture.
Concept of nutrition and food product safety. The area of food safety in the 21st
century and the synthesis of knowledge
The Nutrition and Food Safety (NFS) Department is addressing the burden of disease
from physical, chemical and microbial hazards in food and unhealthy diets, maternal and child
malnutrition, overweight and obesity.
“Food safety” refers to the conditions and practices that preserve the quality of food to
prevent contamination and foodborne illness. “Food safety” includes quality and safety through
the whole food chain. The quality of the food not to cause harm to the consumer.
What are the concepts of food and nutrition?
There are six major nutrient categories: carbohydrates, proteins, fats; minerals, vitamins
and water. The first three provide calories for energy in varying amounts depending on the type
and portion size consumed. Individual requirements depend on age, gender, and level of physical
activity.
What is the importance of nutrition and food safety?
Access to sufficient amounts of safe and nutritious food is key to sustaining life and
promoting good health. Unsafe food containing harmful bacteria, viruses, parasites or chemical
substances causes more than 200 diseases, ranging from diarrhoea to cancers.
What are the 5 safety concepts?
Whether you are developing HSMS, conducting a safety awareness workshop, or
redesigning a general safety program, you must consider the 5 components of workplace
safety: Education, Encouragement, Engineering, Enforcement and Evaluation.
What are the 5 elements of food safety?
Five keys to safer food manual

keep clean;

separate raw and cooked;

cook thoroughly;

keep food at safe temperatures; and.

use safe water and raw materials.
What are the 7 principles of food safety?
Seven basic principles are employed in the development of HACCP plans that meet the
stated goal. These principles include hazard analysis, CCP identification, establishing critical
limits, monitoring procedures, corrective actions, verification procedures, and record-keeping
and documentation.
Nutrition is about eating a healthy and balanced diet. Food and drink provide the energy
and nutrients you need to be healthy. Understanding these nutrition terms may make it easier for
you to make better food choices.
Food is essential to life, hence food safety is a basic human right. Billons of people in the
world are at risk of unsafe food. Many millions become sick while hundreds of thousand die
yearly. The food chain starts from farm to fork/plate while challenges include microbial,
chemical, personal and environmental hygiene. Historically, documented human tragedies and
economic disasters due to consuming contaminated food occurred as a result of intentional or
unintentional personal conduct and governmental failure to safeguard food quality and safety.
While earlier incidents were mainly chemical contaminants, more recent outbreaks have been
due to microbial agents. The Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) attributed to these agents
are most devastating to children younger than 5 years of age, the elderly and the sick. To ensure
food safety and to prevent unnecessary foodborne illnesses, rapid and accurate detection of
pathogenic agents is essential. Culture-based tests are being substituted by faster and sensitive
culture independent diagnostics including antigen-based assays and polymerase chain reaction
(PCR) panels. Innovative technology such as Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) coupled with
nanoparticles can detect multiple target microbial pathogens' DNA or proteins using nucleic
acids, antibodies and other biomarkers assays analysis. The food producers, distributors, handlers
and vendors bear primary responsibility while consumers must remain vigilant and literate.
Government agencies must enforce food safety laws to safeguard public and individual health.
Medical providers must remain passionate to prevent foodborne illnesses and may consider
treating diseases with safe diet therapy under proper medical supervision. The intimate
collaboration between all the stakeholders will ultimately ensure food safety in the 21st century.
List of recommended references
Main literature
1. Азық-түлік және тағам өнімдерінің қауіпсіздігі [Текст] : оқулық/Г.Күзембаева.-Алматы
: АТУ,2012.-285 бет.Сатыбалды, С.С. Промышленный маркетинг : учебное пособие для вузов / С.
С. Сатыбалды. - 3-е изд., перераб. и обнов. - Алматы : ТехноЭрудит, 2018. - 372 с.
2. Обеспечение безопасности пищевой продукции и внутренний контроль качества
результатов измерений : учебное пособие / Л. Н. Третьяк [и др.]. - 2-е изд. - Алматы : ССК, 2021. -
348 с.Baizakov, S. Total factorial productivity as measure of national and global currencies : distribution
of market prices of production into individual prices, obtained into economy resources / S. Baizakov, S.
Sagintayeva. - 2nd ed. - Astana : JSC "General Consulting", 2010. - 104 с.
3. Азық-түлік шикізаты және тағам өнімдерінің қаүіпсіздігі [Текст] : оқулық "Азық-түлік
өнімдерінің технологиясы", "Биотехнологиясы", "Өңдеу өндірісінің
технологиясы",
"Стандарттау, метрология және сертификаттау ", "Технологиялық машиналар мен жабдықтар"
мамандықтары студ. арналған / М. Ж. Еркебаев [и др.]. - Алматы : ЖШС РПБК "Дәуiр", 2013. - 280
с. - ISBN 978-601-217-397-0 : Moldogaziyeva G.M. Marketing: textbook for students of specialtes
5B050600 - "Economy", 5B050900 - "Finance", 5B050800 -"Account", 5B051100 - "Marketing" / G. M.
Moldogaziyeva, A. A. Alzhanova. - Almaty : ССК, 2017. - 208 с.
4. Тасполтаева, А. Р. Азық-түлік өнімдерінің қауіпсіздігі және сараптамасы пәнінен
дәрістер жинағы [Текст] : 5В072700 - "Азық-түлік өндірістерінің технологиясы" маман. студ.
арналған / А. Р. Тасполтаева, Э. Т. Қансейтова, И. Р. Садырбаева. - Шымкент : ОҚМУ, 2016. - 105
с. - Б. ц.
5. Тағам өнімдерінің қауіпсіздігі: оқу құралы / Б.Т. Тнымбаева, А.Б. Тоқтамысова. –
Алматы: Эпиграф, 2020. – 248 б.https://elib.kz/ru/search/read_book/7043/
6. Тамақ өнімдерінің қауіпсіздік қауіп қатерін бағалау: оқу құралы / Уажанова Р.У.,
Тунгышбаева У.О., Кажымурат А.Т., Ибраимова С.Е., Шалгинбаев Д.Б. – Алматы: Эверо, 2020. –
328 сhttps://elib.kz/ru/search/read_book/7042/.
Additional literature
1. Кантере, В. М.
Системы менеджмента безопасности пищевой продукции на основе
международного стандарта ИСО 22000 [Текст] : монография / В. М. Кантере, В. А. Матисон, Ю. С.
Сазонов. - М. : Типография РАСХН, 2006. - 454 с. - ISBN 5-85941-148-0 : 2756.52 Тг.
2. Наубайхана өндірісінде қолданылатын шикізаттар мен материалдар: оқу құралы / М.П.
Байысбаева. – Алматы: Эверо, 2018. – 120 бет https://elib.kz/ru/search/read_book
3. Нечаев А.П.Безопасность продуктов питания [Text] : учеб.пособие для студ.
обучающихся по направлению "Техн.продуктов питания"и группе спец."Техн. продовольственных
прод." / Нечаев А.П., Витол И.С. - М. : [s. n.], 1999. - 86 с.
4. Донченко, Л. В. Безопасность пищевой продукции [Текст] : учебник для студ. вузов,
обуч. по спец. "Технология производства и переработки сельскохозяйственной продукции";
Рекомендовано Мин. с/х. РФ / Л. В. Донченко, В. Д. Надыкта. - 2-е изд., перераб. и доп. - М. :
ДеЛи принт, 2007. - 539 с. : ил. 60: табл.85. - ISBN 978-5-94343-092-3 : 10500 Тг
5. Нечаев, А. П. Пищевые добавки [Text] : учебно-метод. пособие / А. П. Нечаев, А. А.
Кочеткова, А. Н. Государственный контроль качества минеральной воды и напитков [Текст] :
справочник технического комитета по стандартизации. - М. : ИПК Изд-во стандартов, 2003. - 840
с.
6. Мартинчик, А. Н.Физиология питания, санитария и гигиена [Текст] : учебное пособие
допущено МО РФ для студ. учреждений СПО / А. Н. Мартинчик, А. А. Королев, Л. С.
Трофименко. - 3-е изд., стереотип. - М. "Академия" : [б. и.], 2004. - 192 с. - (Среднее
профессиональное образование). - ISBN 576951907Х : 1225 Тг